COLOMBIA 


»^>2 


L 


K 


SOUTH   AMERICAN    HANDBOOKS 


C  O  LOM  BI  A 

PHYSICAL   FEATURES,  NATURAL    RESOURCES, 

MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION,  MANUFACTURES 

AND    INDUSTRIAL    DEVELOPMENT 


V.    LEVINE 

WITH     INTRODUCTION     BY 

B.    SANIN   CANO 


NEW  YORK 
D.   APPLETON   &  COMPANY 

MCMXIV 


30953 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION    BY   B.   SANIN   CANO 
I.      GEOGRAPHY  AND  PHYSICAL  FEATURES 

H.      CLIMATE  AND  HEALTH 

III.       NATURAL   HISTORY 
—IV.      DISCOVERY  AND   SETTLEMENT 

V.      DEPARTMENTS      AND      DISTRIBUTION      OF 
POPULATION 
— VI.      CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT 
VII.      FINANCE     ..... 
VIII.      SOCIAL  CONDITIONS      . 
IX.      INLAND   COMMUNICATION 
X      HARBOURS   AND   PORTS 
XI.      FORESTS  AND  FOREST  PRODUCTS   . 
XII.      AGRICULTURE      .... 

XIII.  MINING   AND   MINERALS 

XIV.  MANUFACTURES  AND  MINOR   INDUSTRIES 
XV.      IMPORT  AND  EXPORT  TRADE      - 

-XVI.      LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS   . 
APPENDICES  : 

(A)  LIST   OF    STEAMSHIP    LINES   AND    RIVER 

SERVICES  .... 

(B)  MONEY  AND  COLOMBIAN  CURRENCY 

(C)  WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES    . 

(D)  POSTS   AND   TELEGRAPHS      . 

(E)  DIPLOMATIC  AND   CONSULAR 

(F)  DENOUNCEMENT    AND    ALLOTMENT    OF 

PUBLIC   LANDS 

(G)  CONVENTIONS   AND   TREATIES 
INDEX       


IX 

1 

5 

9 

13 

23 

45 

50 

59 

74 

90 

97 

102 

112 

126 

135 

148 


185 
187 

188 
189 
192 

193 
209 
211 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


map  of  Colombia     ....     Frontispiece 

BRIDGE   OF  THE  LIBERATOR,  NEAR  BOGOTA  facing 

THE   CHURCH   OF   VERA   CRUZ,   MEDELLIN 

AVENIDA   COLON,   MEDELLIN 

THE  CHURCH  OF  SAN  FRANCISCO,  BOGOTA 

THE   CAPITOL,   BOGOTA 

INNER   COURT  OF   CAPITOL,    BOGOTA 

A   MODERN   PRIVATE   HOUSE,   MEDELLIN 

SKETCH  MAP   OF   RAILWAYS   AND   WATERWAYS 

RIVER       MAGDALENA    —    STERN-WHEEL        STEAMER 

"  CALDAS  " 

THE   PORT  OF  GIRARDOT,   ON   THE   MAGDALENA 
A   METHOD    OF   TRANSPORT,    MOUNTAIN   DISTRICTS 
OPEN   AND   COVERED   MARKETS,    BOGOTA 
A  COTrON   STORE  ..... 

A  MULETEER  ...... 

MAP   OF   SOUTH   AMERICA         .... 


6 
18 
26 
34 
46 
48 
62 
72 

74 
84 
88 
108 
128 
146 
218 


INTRODUCTION 

The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  this  year  means  the 
beginning  of  a  new  commercial  era  for  Colombia,  which 
is  one  of  the  nations  most  favoured  by  this  inter-oceanic 
highway.  The  sea  journey  between  Buenaventura  and 
Cartagena,  which  to-day  occupies  three  months,  will 
be  reduced  to  four  days.  The  opening  of  the  Canal  and 
the  extension  of  the  Pacific  railway  to  the  capital  of  the 
Republic  will  give  to  the  country  the  full  advantages 
of  her  geographical  position,  making  her  importance  in 
the  Pacific  more  than  equal  to  that  in  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

The  Pacific  coast  of  Colombia  is  at  present  but  little 
known.  The  valley  of  the  Cauca,  the  basin  of  the 
Atrato,  the  territories  watered  by  the  San  Juan  and  the 
Patia  will  now  attract  the  capital,  which  has  up  to  the 
present  only  been  invested  with  much  hesitation. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  find  the  reason  why  Colombia  has 
been  less  known  than  other  South  American  nations  : 
the  principal  reason  has  been  the  frequent  change  of 
name.  The  foreign  capitalist  was  confronted  with  the 
difficulty  of  the  name.  When  he  wished  to  study  the 
country  with  the  idea  of  investing  in  it  his  own  money 
or  that  of  others,  there  was  a  sense  of  insecurity. 

The  disturbances  in  New  Granada  had  a  bad  effect 
on  the  development  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  ; 
and  when  the  Republic  came  to  assume  the  name  of 
Colombia,  the  name  caused  difficulties  owing  to  its 
somewhat  common  occurrence. 


x  COLOMBIA 

The  coast  is  hot,  and  it  has  been  assumed,  therefore, 
in  days  past,  that  the  same  temperature  prevails  over  the 
rest  of  the  country.  In  this  book  the  reader  will  learn 
that  the  regions  most  densely  populated  and  offering  the 
greatest  opportunities  enjoy  a  climate  as  benign  to  the 
white  race  as  the  southern  countries  of  Europe. 

As  a  result  of  the  increased  facilities  of  communica- 
tion, the  publication  of  trade  returns,  and  the  interest 
taken  by  President  Reyes  in  making  the  country  known, 
attention  will  now  be  strongly  attracted  by  the  natural 
resources  of  Colombia. 

The  administrations  that  have  been  in  power  since  1903 
have  principally  devoted  themselves  to  keeping  the 
peace,  and  their  efforts  have  had  the  effect  of  enabling 
the  country  to  settle  all  questions  by  civilised  methods. 

Colombia  has  just  given  an  example  to  the  world.  The 
most  difficult  problem  in  American  democracies,  namely, 
that  of  securing  the  liberty  of  the  voter,  and  the  policy 
of  electoral  methods,  appears  to  be  finally  settled  in  this 
country.  In  the  elections  that  have  just  taken  place, 
the  result  of  which  has  been  the  election  of  Dr.  Jose  V. 
Concha  as  President,  the  parties  interested  in  the  struggle 
had  for  their  chief  object  the  general  good  of  the  country 
rather  than  the  triumph  of  a  particular  candidate. 
Dr.  Concha  will  enter  on  the  government  of  the  country 
under  the  best  auspices.  He  is  not  an  inexperienced 
man  ;  he  has  been  Minister  on  various  occasions,  and 
has  had  to  settle  during  his  term  of  office  the  most 
serious  questions.  He  has  represented  his  country  in  the 
United  States  and  in  France,  and  has  had  to  study 
during  his  residence  in  Europe  the  most  complicated 


INTRODUCTION  xi 

side  of  Colombian  finance.  The  nation  has  a  right  to 
expect  years  of  peace  and  the  harmonious  development 
of  all  forms  of  culture  during  his  administration. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  at  the  present 
time  that  Colombia  should  be  better  known.  The 
economical  conditions  of  certain  industrial  centres  in 
South  America,  in  Africa,  and  Australasia  are  not  at 
the  present  moment  the  most  satisfactory  for  foreign 
capital.  Moreover,  the  prosperity  of  some  of  those 
countries  has  resulted  in  their  being  able  to  raise  the 
capital  required  for  their  own  development.  Australia 
Argentina,  and  South  Africa  will  soon  be  in  a  condition 
to  provide  for  themselves.  Argentina,  on  emerging  from 
the  present  crisis,  may,  perhaps,  be  casting  her  eyes  on 
other  South  American  countries,  in  order  to  instil  in  them 
the  result  of  her  own  brilliant  economical  development. 

Colombia  has  so  far  consistently  refused  to  advertise 
her  natural  resources,  and  the  logical  development  of 
events  has  now  placed  this  work  in  disinterested  hands. 

This  volume  affords  the  means  not  only  of  learning 
the  past  history  of  the  country,  but  also  of  interpreting 
something  of  its  future.  For  the  capitalist,  the  explorer, 
the  tourist,  the  commercial  traveller,  there  is  information 
of  a  practical  kind  which  cannot  fail  to  be  useful.  The 
Author  has  made  use  of  the  latest  official  publications 
and  has  taken  advantage  of  valuable  data  contained  in 
many  works  which  are  not  easily  procurable. 

Canal  Zone  Treaty.  While  this  book  was  passing 
through  the  Press  news  is  to  hand  from  Bogota  that  a 
treaty  of  amity  has  been  signed  between  the  sister 
Republics  of  Colombia  and  the  United  States  of  America. 


xii  COLOMBIA 

By  this  treaty  the  United  States  agrees,  within  six  months 
of  the  signing  thereof,  to  pay  to  Colombia  a  sum  of 
£5,000,000  as  compensation  for  the  acquisition  of  the 
Panama  Canal  Zone ;  also  to  grant  certain  privileges  for 
Colombian  trade  passing  through  the  Canal,  and  free  use 
for  Colombian  Government  vessels.  This  not  only  closes 
the  controversy  on  the  subject,  but  also  places  the 
Colombian  nation  in  a  very  favourable  position.  It 
will  be  seen  on  referring  to  the  chapter  on  "  National 
Finance  "  that  another  result  contingent  on  this  payment 
will  be  the  allotment  to  the  Foreign  Bondholders  of  the 
Republic  of  the  balance  of  the  old  arrears  of  interest,  as 
arranged  by  the  late  Lord  Avebury. 

B.  Sanin  Cano. 


COLOMBIA 


CHAPTER  I 

GEOGRAPHY   AND   PHYSICAL   FEATURES 

The  Republic  of  Colombia,  formerly  known  as  New 
Granada,  occupies  the  north-west  of  the  continent  of 
South  America.  It  lies  between  Lat.  12°  24'  N.,  and 
4°  17'  S.,  and  between  Long.  66°  T  and  79°  W.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea  ;  on  the  east 
by  Venezuela  and  Brazil ;  on  the  South  by  Peru  and 
Ecuador  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  and 
Panama.  The  boundaries  with  Peru,  Ecuador,  and 
Panama  are  still  in  dispute,  and  the  area  is  therefore 
uncertain.  According  to  the  census  of  1912  the  total 
area  is  461,606  square  miles  and  the  population  5,476,604 
(about  30,000  uncivilised  Indians  being  excluded  from 
this  total). 

The  area  included  in  Colombia  falls  into  two  approx- 
imately equal  parts  of  totally  dissimilar  character.  The 
more  populous  and  better  known  portion,  that  of  the 
north  and  west,  is  divided  longitudinally  by  a  series  of 
mountain  ranges,  enclosing  great  river  valleys.  The 
south-east  which  lies  beyond  the  mountains,  consists 
of  great  well-watered  plains  or  sabanas,  300  to  500  ft. 
above  sea.  The  northern  portion  of  this  division  belongs 
geologically  to  the  llano  open  pasture  lands — draining 
north-east  to  the  Orinoco,  while  the  southern   part  is 


2  COLOMBIA 

covered  with  dense  tropical  forest,  and  drains  south-east 
to  the  Amazon  basin. 

The  Mountain  Ranges  run,  roughly  speaking,  north 
and  south,  in  a  line  parallel  with  the  Pacific  coast ;  and 
the  flow  of  the  more  important  rivers  is  from  south  to 
north,  emptying  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Close  to  the 
coast,  along  the  whole  length  of  the  intendencia  of  Choco, 
runs  a  river  range,  known  as  the  Baudo  range,  belonging 
to  the  Antilles  system  of  Panama.  To  the  east  of  this 
range  flow  the  rivers  Atrato,  which  runs  north  to  ^he 
gulf  of  Uraba,  and  San  Juan  (149  miles),  which  runs 
south,  and  enters  the  Pacific  by  several  mouths  at  the 
south  of  the  department. 

The  Andes  of  Ecuador  enter  Colombia  at  Los  Pastos 
in  Narino.  The  Western  branch  continues  north  as  the 
Western  Cordillera  of  Colombia,  or  Cordillera  de  Choco. 
It  is  cut  by  the  tremendous  precipitous  gorge  of  the 
river  Patia  (1,676  ft.  deep),  and  then  runs  north  to  the 
department  of  Bolivar.  As  it  dies  down  into  the  plain, 
one  branch,  the  San  Jeronimo  range,  divides  the  river 
Sinis  from  the  San  Jorge,  and  another,  the  Ayapel, 
divides  the  San  Jorge  from  the  Cauca.  Along  nearly  the 
whole  eastern  side  of  the  range  runs  the  great  river 
Cauca  (496  miles),  with  numerous  small  tributaries, 
entering  the  Magdalena  in  Bolivar.  The  summits  of  the 
Cordillera  rise  to  heights  ranging  from  9,000  to  18,000  ft., 
and  include  Cayambe  (13,710  ft.),  Chiles  (16,912  ft.),  and 
Cumbal  (17,076  ft.). 

At    the  paramo1   of   Las  Papas   the  eastern    Andes 

1  Paramos — high,  wind-swept  plateaux,  covered  with  scanty, 
low  vegetation. 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  PHYSICAL  FEATURES      3 

subdivide  into  the  Central  and  the  Eastern  Cordilleras. 
The  Central  Cordillera,  of  volcanic  origin,  forms  the 
watershed  between  the  Cauca  and  the  still  greater 
Magdalena,  and  terminates  near  Morales  on  the  latter 
river.  This  is  the  highest  range,  and  includes  Tolima 
(18,400  ft.),  Huila  (17,700  ft.),  Santa  Isabel  (16,700  ft.), 
Coconucos  (15,000  ft.),  Purace  (16,821  ft.),  Las  Papas 
(13,800  ft.),  Ruiz  (18,300  ft.),  El  Quindio  (17,000  ft.), 
andElBuey  (13,860  ft.). 

The  Eastern  Cordillera,  or  Cordillera  de  Bogota,  is 
of  cretaceous  and  tertiary  formation.  It  runs  north-east 
from  Las  Papas  to  the  northern  part  of  the  department 
of  Boyaca.  Here  there  is  another  subdivision.  One 
branch  runs  north  to  the  peninsula  of  Goajira,  and  as 
the  Sierra  de  Perija  forms  the  boundary  between  the 
department  of  Magdalena  and  Venezuela ;  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  coast  it  is  joined  on  the  west  by  the  Sierra 
Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  which  runs  parallel  with  the 
coast.  The  other  branch  passes  north-east  into  Venezuela, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  Cordillera  de  Merida.  The  two 
ranges  enclose  the  great  basin  of  Maracaibo.  The  highest 
parts  are  in  the  Chita  range  and  at  Sumapaz,  while 
the  paramo  of  Santurban  is  13,000  ft.  above  sea-level. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  Santa  Marta  range,  not  yet 
ascended,  reach  probably  over  18,000  ft. 

The  mountains,  as  they  die  down  in  the  north  in  the 
departments  of  Magdalena  and  Bolivar,  are  succeeded 
by  an  extensive  plain,  watered  by  the  lower  Magdalena 
and  its  tributaries,  and  by  smaller  rivers  flowing  into  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  This  plain,  described  as  the  Atlantic  plain, 
was  called  by  the  early  Spanish  conquerors,  New  Andalusia. 


4  COLOMBIA 

A  great  part  of  the  Choco,  watered  by  the  Atrato  and 
the  San  Juan,  is  flat  also.  The  lowest  zone  is  subject  to 
periodical  inundation,  and  the  higher  ground  is  covered 
with  forest. 

The  "  llano  "  country  extends  almost  without  undula- 
tion from  the  foot  of  the  Cordillera  in  Boyaca  as  far  as 
the  Orinoco.  It  is  watered  by  the  Arauca,  the  Capa- 
naparo,  the  Meta,  the  Vichada,  the  Guaviare,  and  the 
Inirida,  together  with  their  numerous  tributaries.  In 
San  Martin,  to  the  south-west,  and  in  the  south,  the 
ground  is  slightly  higher,  and  the  rivers  drain  to  the  Rio 
Negro  and  the  Amazon.  The  chief  of  these,  from  the 
west  to  the  east,  are  the  Napo  (the  boundary  with 
Ecuador),  the  Putumayo  or  Iza,  the  Caqueta  or  Yapura, 
the  Apaporis,  and  the  Vaupes.  This  country  is  covered 
with  forest  and  inhabited  only  by  uncivilised  Indians. 
It  is  practically  unknown  and  unexplored,  but  doubtless 
possesses  the  usual  forest  products  of  the  Amazon  basin. 
The  southern  portion  lies  on  the  equator. 


CHAPTER   II 

CLIMATE   AND   HEALTH 

While  geographically  Colombia  is  a  tropical  country, 
it  presents  great  diversity  of  climate.  On  the  coast 
and  the  low  lying  river  basins  the  climate  is  what  might 
be  expected  in  those  regions,  but  owing  to  the  immense 
range  in  the  elevation  above  sea-level  and  the  curious 
configuration  of  the  mountain  chains,  the  climate  becomes 
a  matter  of  locality.  Broadly  speaking  five  zones  may 
be  distinguished  :  (1)  The  tierra  ardiente,  limited  to  a  few 
districts,  such  as  the  lower  parts  of  the  Magdalena, 
where  often  the  stones  are  so  hot  that  they  cannot  be 
touched.  (2)  The  hot  region  (tierras  caliente)  up  to 
about  3,000  ft.  This  includes  the  plains  of  the  north, 
west  and  south-east  and  such  great  river  valleys  as  of  the 
Magdalena,  Meta  and  Putumayo.  (3)  The  temperate 
region  (tierra  ternftlada),  from  3,000  to  6,500  ft.  (4)  The 
cold  region  {tierra  fria),  from  6,500  to  10,000  ft.  These 
last  two  regions  range  from  the  higher  valleys  to  the 
foot-hills  of  the  upper  plateaux  ;  they  have  a  fine,  healthy 
climate,  and  contain  the  bulk  of  the  population,  more 
especially  near  Bogota,  in  the  eastern  Cordillera.  (5)  The 
higher  plateaux  and  mountain  slopes.  These  elevated 
uplands  are  extremely  stormy  and  inclement,  being 
exposed  not  only  to  heavy  mists  but  to  biting,  violent 
winds.  The  passes  crossing  from  west  to  east,  by  which 
alone  direct  communication  can  be  made,  are  frequently 
so  swampy  as  to  be  almost  impracticable. 

2  — (2248)  5 


6  COLOMBIA 

The  coast  towns,  such  as  Santa  Marta,  Cartagena, 
Barranquilla,  belong  to  the  hot  region  ;  Medellin,  Cartago, 
Guaduas,  Ibague,  and  Popayan  to  the  temperate ; 
Bogota,  Pasto,  and  Tunja  to  the  cold  region. 

Seasons. — In  different  parts  of  the  country  the 
seasons  vary.  In  certain  districts  of  the  centre  and  the 
South,  and  in  the  Cordilleras,  between  840  and  10,000  ft. 
above  sea-level,  there  are  two  rainy  seasons,  the  so-called 
winters,  from  April  to  June  and  September  to  December, 
being  separated  by  two  periods  of  dry  weather ;  else- 
where, and  above  10,000  ft.,  there  is  a  wet  season  of 
rather  over  six  months  (June  to  December),  and  a  dry 
season  (January  to  June).  Hence  summer  below 
10,000  ft.  may  be  contemporaneous  with  violent  rain, 
hail  and  storms  in  the  higher  plateaux. 

Local  conditions,  however,  often  intervene  making 
generalisation  rather  dangerous.  For  instance,  while 
on  the  north,  or  Atlantic,  coast  the  climate  is  intensely 
hot  and  damp,  frequent  breezes  help  to  make  it  tolerable  ; 
on  the  west,  or  Pacific  coast,  there  is  heat  with  almost 
constant  rain,  only  varied  by  occasional  violent  tempests. 
In  many  of  the  valleys  the  damp  heat  is  excessive, 
bottled  up,  as  it  were,  and  is  little  modified  by  air  currents. 
Then  in  the  montana  or  forest  districts,  during  the  rainy 
season  the  day  temperature  may  rise  as  high  as  100°  F. 
and  fall  to  72°  at  night.  In  the  Magdalena  valley, 
from  the  coast  up  to  say  Girardot,  the  daily  temperature 
is  about  95°  F.  ;  in  the  Cauca  valley  with  two  wet  and 
two  dry  seasons,  the  average  is  only  76°  F.,  with  a  range 
from  64°  to  84°.  On  the  other  hand,  Bogota,  4°  N.  of 
the  equator,  which  is  classed  in  the  cold  zone,  has  an 


CQ 


r0 

^3 


CLIMATE  AND   HEALTH  7 

equable  climate,   the  temperature  ranging  from  54°  F. 
to  64°  F.,  with  a  rainfall  of  43  in.     The  rain  generally 
comes  in  the  afternoon.     Here  the  only  inconvenience 
felt  is  from  the  rarity  of  the  air,  which  makes  breathing 
to  the  unaccustomed  visitor  something  of  a  conscious 
effort,  decidedly  trying  to  those  with  weak  hearts  or  lungs. 
While  the  tropical  low  lying  lands  and  valleys  are  un- 
suited   to   the    permanent    residence    of  white    people, 
malarious  fevers  of  varying  degrees  of  malignity  being 
endemic,  on  the  whole  Colombia  is  a  healthy  country. 
There  is  a  certain  amount  of  yellow  fever,  and  possibly 
also  pellagra,  but  these  diseases,  together  with  malaria, 
will  doubtless  be  rendered  almost  innocuous  when  sanitary 
measures  have  been  more  generally  adopted.     Colombians 
have  not  been  unobservant  of  what  has  been  accomplished 
in  Panama,  especially  within  the  Canal  Zone,  and  hopes 
are  entertained  that  in  time  effective  warfare  by  means 
of  hygienic  precautions  may  be  waged  against  the  winged 
carriers   of  various   diseases.     When   the   municipalities 
have  carried  out  their  programmes  of  civic  sanitation — 
water-supply,   sewerage  and  so  on — which  are  now  in 
hand,  the  danger  of  epidemics  will  have  been  largely 
removed. 

It  has  been  observed  that  there  is  a  marked  difference 
in  those  districts  watered  by  rivers  having  aguas  negras 
and  those  with  aguas  claras.  The  former,  while  limpid 
enough,  appear  intensely  black  in  mass,  even  when  the 
river  is  in  flood  ;  wherever  these  black  waters  are  found, 
mosquitos  are  absent,  the  district  is  free  from  malaria 
and  generally  healthy.  So  far  these  phenomena  have 
not  been  scientifically  investigated,  but  there  may  be 


8  COLOMBIA 

the  possibility  of  a  great  discovery  for  some  synthetically- 
minded  researcher. 

Finally,  it  may  be  said  that  outside  of  the  character- 
istically hot  and  damp  tropical  districts,  visitors  and 
settlers  will  experience  little  inconvenience  if  observing 
ordinary  precautions  as  regards  clothing  and  diet.  The 
necessity  for  such  precautions  may  be  seen  by  observing 
the  Indians,  who  in  the  lower  forest  regions  go,  like  the 
negroes,  almost  naked,  but  in  the  cold  mountain  districts 
are  clothed  in  heavy  woollen  garments. 


CHAPTER   III 

NATURAL   HISTORY 

For  several  reasons  the  flora  and  fauna  of  Colombia  are 
of  remarkable  variety  and  interest.  The  whole  country 
is  tropical,  the  south  lying  on  the  equator  itself.  As 
in  Peru  there  is  a  series  of  climatic  zones,  ranging  from 
sea-level  to  far  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The 
boundaries  of  the  country  connect  its  natural  history  not 
only  with  the  abundant  products  of  its  South  American 
neighbours,  but  also  in  the  north-west  with  those  of  Central 
America  and  the  West  Indies. 

Flora. — From  the  point  of  view  of  vegetation, 
Colombia  may  be  divided  into  three  zones — hot, 
temperate,  and  cold. 

The  hot  zone  includes  the  coasts,  eastern  plains  and 
river-valleys,  up  to  a  height  of  about  3,500  ft.  The 
wooded  country  produces  abundant  timber  trees,  dye- 
woods,  and  medicinal  plants,  which  are  particularised 
in  the  chapter  on  Forest  Products.  Large  bamboo 
thickets  are  found  (guaduas)  ;  but  the  most  characteristic 
feature  is  the  palm  trees.  It  is  stated  that  twenty-five 
species  are  found  in  a  district  of  ten  square  leagues 
in  the  territory  of  San  Martin.  In  addition  to  their 
beauty  many  of  these  trees  have  valuable  economic 
products  ;  the  coco-nut  palm,  the  Tagua  or  Vegetable 
Ivory,  the  Royal  Palm,  and  the  Wax-palm  may  be 
instanced. 

The  cultivated  crops  include  the  cacao,   sugar-cane, 

9 


10  COLOMBIA 

tobacco,  maize,  indigo,  cotton,  and  vanilla  ;  and  the 
fruits  the  banana,  orange,  lemon,  pineapple,  mango, 
papaya,  alligator-pear,  water-melon,  strawberry,  and 
sapodilla.  The  botanical  collector  finds  numerous  plants* 
such  as  orchids,  of  very  considerable  value  for  export 
to  European  and  other  horticulturists ;  Cattleya  and 
odontoglossum  crispum  may  be  mentioned. 

The  temperate  zone  includes  the  land  from  about  3,500 
to  8,500  ft.  above  sea-level.  Much  of  the  flora  above 
mentioned  is  also  found  in  this  zone,  but  a  gradual 
difference  is  perceptible.  The  palms  are  replaced 
generally  by  tree-ferns,  though  the  Wax-palm  is  found 
throughout  the  temperate  zone.  Dates  and  Wamannias 
appear,  and  also  the  Cinchona,  from  which  Peruvian  or 
Jesuits'  bark  is  obtained.  Orchids  and  other  epiphytes, 
moss,  and  lichen  grow  on  the  tree  trunks.  Coffee  is 
added  to  the  list  of  crops.  The  Maguey  or  American 
Agave  is  one  of  the  most  useful  plants  of  this  zone,  the 
Indians  using  stem,  leaves,  fruit  and  fibre  for  different 
purposes  ;  it  furnishes  food,  drink,  tow,  and  fibre  for 
making  sacks  and  ropes. 

The  cultivation  of  maize  continues  and  that  of  wheat 
begins. 

In  the  cold  zone  maize  is  still  found,  though  smaller 
than  in  the  temperate.  Potatoes  and  all  the  vegetable 
and  cereal  crops  of  Europe  grow  abundantly,  and  the 
gardens  produce  all  the  usual  flowers  and  fruits.  The 
wax-palm  is  still  found  in  the  forests,  together  with 
walnuts  and  pines,  but  trees  cease' to  grow  at  about 
10,000  ft.  The  paramos  however  produce  the  flowering 
and    resinous    shrubs    called    "  frailejons "    (including 


NATURAL  HISTORY  11 

Espeletia  and  Cukitium)  and  grasses  similar  to  the 
"  ichu  "  grass  of  Peru.  About  13,000  ft.  all  vegetation, 
but  lichens  and  alpine  plants  ceases,  and  bare  rock  leads 
up  to  perpetual  snow. 

Fauna. — The  Fauna  may  be  classified  as  (a)  imported, 
(b)  indigenous.  Many  domesticated  animals  have  been 
introduced  from  Europe,  e.g.,  the  horse,  mule,  donkey, 
ox,  etc.  These  have  become  acclimatised  and  adapted 
to  their  new  environment.  The  indigenous  animals 
represent  practically  all  the  genera  characteristic  of 
South  America.  The  carnivora  include  the  puma 
(cougar)  and  jaguar  :  two  kinds  of  bears,  a  black  variety 
in  the  lowlands,  and  one  with  white  face  in  the  eastern 
Cordillera ;  and  the  skunk,  valuable  for  its  fur,  an 
animal  which  is  now  being  fast  exterminated.  The  Pachy- 
dermata  are  represented  by  the  tapir  and  two  other 
species.  The  tapir,  inhabiting  the  paramos,  is  of  shy, 
nocturnal  habit  ;  its  hide  is  valued  for  making  saddles 
and  harness,  and  its  flesh  is  palatable.  The  Edentata 
include  two  varieties  of  armadillo,  and  two  ant-eaters 
(the  ant-bear  and  the  scaly  ant-eater).  The  sloth  is 
found  in  the  forests  ;  the  skin  is  used  for  covering 
saddles.  The  opossum,  the  cave  rat,  and  the  yapok 
or  water  rat,  with  valuable  fur,  belong  to  the  Marsupials. 
The  Capybary  is  the  largest  of  the  rodents,  4  ft.  long 
by  2  ft.  high  ;  it  has  no  tail,  and  is  largely  aquatic  in 
habit ;  the  flesh  is  palatable.  Ruminants  are  repre- 
sented by  the  common  deer,  the  Peruvian  white  deer, 
and  other  species  ;  rodents  by  the  Capybary,  and  many 
species  of  hare,  rabbit,  and  rat ;  Quadrumana  by  both 
large  and  small  monkeys,   of  which  seventeen  species 


12  COLOMBIA 

have  been  distinguished  ;  Cheiroptera  by  many  varieties 
of  bats  and  vampires. 

Birds  are  found  in  great  variety,  from  the  Condor,  the 
white  and  royal  eagles,  and  other  birds  of  prey  to  smaller 
varieties  distinguished  for  their  brilliant  plumage  or 
remarkable  powers  of  song.  Few  of  these,  however, 
are  peculiar  to  Colombia,  and  the  species  are  so  numerous 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  catalogue  them.  One  may 
mention  the  parrots,  the  toucan,  the  rosy  heron  of  the 
lower  Magdalena,  the  cenaja  (a  brilliant  Trochilus  or 
humming-bird,  believed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  country), 
the  sauci,  with  a  song  like  that  of  the  canary,  and  the 
campanero,  whose  bell-like  note  can  be  heard  for  a  distance 
of  half-a-mile. 

Among  the  reptiles  are  the  great  Caymans,  many 
species  of  tortoise,  lizards,  and  snakes  (the  boa-constrictor, 
found  especially  in  the  south-east ;  venomous  snakes, 
such  as  the  talla,  particularly  characteristic  of  the  Choco, 
but  not  found  above  6,000  ft.  above  sea-level).  Frogs 
and  toads  giow  to  a  great  size. 

The  sea  and  rivers  are  stocked  with  abundant  supplies 
of  fish  food.  Among  characteristic  products  are  the 
manatee  or  sea-cow,  which  grows  to  a  length  of  6  to  8  ft.  ; 
turtles  on  the  Atlantic  coast ;  and  pearls,  found  in 
Buenaventura  Bay. 

Finally,  the  tropical  insect  life  is  overwhelming — 
locusts,  beetles,  ants,  butterflies  and  moths,  mosquitoes, 
grasshoppers,  lice,  fleas,  etc. ;  in  many  districts  they 
amount  to  a  veritable  plague. 


CHAPTER    IV 

DISCOVERY   AND   SETTLEMENT 

In  order  to  be  able  to  appreciate  the  future  possibilities 
of  Colombia,  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  its 
history.  When  we  look  upon  its  territorial  magnitude, 
its  felicitous  position  as  regards  geographical  situation 
and  climatic  conditions,  and  its  vast  potential  wealth, 
the  material  advance  so  far  made  is  disappointing  ;  con- 
fidence will  be  restored,  however,  if  we  but  reflect  upon 
its  troubled  past,  with  all  its  wrongs  and  oppressions. 
The  early  and  middle  history  will  explain,  if  not  indeed 
excuse,  the  constant  upheavals  and  turmoils  which  were 
so  soon  to  follow  the  glorious  hopes  awakened  by  the 
War  of  Independence.  Only  long  and  painful  travail 
could  overcome  the  inheritance  of  suppression  and 
suspicion  which  was  the  outcome  of  the  old  regime. 
But  the  time  of  probation  having  passed,  the  true 
genius  of  the  Colombian  people  has  had  opportunity  of 
manifesting  itself,  and  a  new  era  of  well-directed  activity 
has  been  opened  up. 

At  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Conquest  (1533-1560) 
the  majority  of  the  numerous  Indian  tribes  inhabiting 
what  is  now  known  as  Colombia  were  uncivilized,  being 
in  a  state  of  perpetual  warfare,  and  supplying  their 
wants  by  their  skill  in  hunting  and  fishing  ;  yet  there 
were  a  group  of  tribes  which  seemed  to  form  a  link 
in  that  wonderful  chain  of  native  civilizations,  which, 
commencing  with  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico,  ended  with  the 

13 


14  COLOMBIA 

Incas  of  Peru.  These  tribes,  the  Chibchas,  or  Muiscas, 
and  the  Quimbayas,  like  the  other  advanced  nations  of 
Central  and  Southern  America,  inhabited  high  and  moun- 
tainous plateaux.  The  Chibchas  dwelt  on  the  sabana 
of  Bogota,  making  their  headquarters  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Tunja  ;  the  Quimbayas  inhabited  an  extensive 
territory  lying  between  the  rivers  Chinchina,  Cauca, 
Patia,  and  the  Central  Cordillera.  According  to  Spanish 
chronicles,  the  Chibchas  believed  in  a  Supreme  Being, 
Chiminiguagua,  though  they  also  worshipped  the  sun, 
moon,  stars,  lakes  and  streams.  Tradition  held  that 
their  civilization  was  the  gift  of  a  "  white  man,"  the 
reforming  Bochica.  That  they  had  advanced  far  is 
testified  not  only  by  the  interesting  accounts  of  their 
civil  and  economical  organisation,  but  also  by  the 
numerous  examples  discovered  in  their  tombs  of  their 
skill  in  working  gold  and  copper,  as  well  as  their 
mastery  of  the  arts  of  the  potter  and  weaver.  Cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil  was  not  neglected  :  they  grew  maize, 
potatoes,  certain  fruits,  and  cotton.  Side  by  side  with 
these  labours  was  a  systematic  training  in  the  practice 
ot  warfare.  Under  their  chief  Cacique,  Tisquesusha,  they 
offered  a  stubborn  resistance  to  the  Spaniards  before 
they  could  be  suppressed  and  enslaved.  The  Quimbayas, 
perhaps  with  more  politic  enlightenment,  though  ulti- 
mately with  little  better  result,  received  the  conquerors 
with  open  arms  and  became  their  allies. 

Actually  the  first  discoverer  of  the  country  was  Alonzo 
de  Ojeda,  who  visited  Cape  Vela  in  1499.  He  was  fol- 
lowed, in  1501,  by  Rodrigo  Bastida,  who  explored  the 
coast  from  the  Rio  Hacha  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 


DISCOVERY  AND  SETTLEMENT  15 

Between  1510  and  1533  practically  the  whole  of  the 
Colombian  coast  had  been  explored  ;  the  discovery  of 
the  Pacific  in  September,  1513,  was  made  by  Vasco 
Nunez  de  Balboa. 

It  was  not  until  his  fourth  voyage,  in  1502,  that 
Colombus,  following  the  example  of  his  lieutenants,  made 
determined  attempts  to  explore  the  mainland.  He 
landed  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  visited  the  mines 
of  Veraguas,  whence  his  descendants  derived  the  title 
of  Dukes  of  Veragua  ;  but,  disappointed  in  his  aim 
to  discover  a  passage  to  the  East  Indies,  he  merely 
established  a  few  stations  and  once  more  set  sail. 
Others,  however,  were  despatched  to  make  good  the 
formality  of  taking  possession.  In  1510,  San  Sebastian 
de  Uraba  and  Santa  Maria  la  Antigua  were  founded 
respectively  by  Ojeda  and  the  Bachelor  Enciso.  Other 
settlements  followed  rapidly,  some  to  disappear  for  a 
time,  others  to  struggle  on  into  importance.  Among 
the  principal  of  these  was  the  town  of  Panama,  founded 
in  1519  ;  Santa  Marta  in  1525  ;  and  Cartagena  in  1533. 
This  last,  founded  by  Pedro  de  Heredia,  who  later  made 
his  daring  raids  into  the  golden  regions  of  the  Sinu  and 
San  Jorge,  quickly  rose  to  importance.  It  was  destined 
to  become  the  chief  gate  for  the  imports  and  exports 
of  the  country,  the  storehouse  of  gold  and  treasures 
intended  for  shipment  to  Spain,  the  seat  of  powerful 
governors  and  of  the  dreaded  and  paralysing  Inquisi- 
tion, the  object  of  buccaneers'  ambitions,  and  the  hope 
alternately  of  the  Imperial  and  the  Liberationist 
parties.  It  was  also  the  starting-point  of  many  expedi- 
tions  in   search   of   the   ever-receding   fastnesses   of   El 


/ 


16  COLOMBIA 

Dorado.  The  land  had  been  gradually  mapped  out  in 
a  rough  form  as  persevering  adventurers  made  their 
way  across  the  country  from  various  directions.  Herrera 
ascended  the  Orinoco  and  discovered  the  river  Meta  ; 
Pedro  de  Heredia  opened  up  the  gold  regions  of  the  Sinu 
and  San  Jorge  ;  while  Francisco  Cesar,  Vadillo,  and 
Robledo  were  the  forerunners  of  settlers  in  Antioquia 
and  Cauca.  But  far  more  important  than  all  of  these 
was  the  expedition  undertaken  by  Gonzalo  Jimenez 
de  Quesada  on  the  orders  of  Don  Pedro  Fernandez  de 
Lugo,  governor  of  Santa  Marta.  In  August,  1536, 
Quesada  left  Cartagena  at  the  head  of  some  700  foot 
and  eighty  horse  with  the  definite  instructions  to  penetrate 
the  interior  and  establish  posts  in  the  captured  districts. 
He  was  two  years  making  his  way  through  forests,  across 
mountain  ranges  and  difficult  streams,  fighting  fierce 
native  tribes,  before  he  reached  the  high  sabanas 
round  about  Tunja.  He  made  his  headquarters  at  the 
conquered  town  of  Bacata  and  called  it  Santa  Fe  de 
Bogota.  Hardly  had  he  settled  down  to  map  out  this 
domain,  to  which  he  had  given  the  title  of  Kingdom  of 
New  Granada,  when  he  was  startled  by  the  irruption  of 
white  invaders  from  two  opposite  directions.  Federmann, 
lieutenant  of  Georg  von  Speyer,  governor  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Venezuela  (which  had  been  given  to  certain 
Augsbourg  bankers,  the  Welsers,  as  an  hereditary  fief  by 
Charles  V),  had  taken  three  years  to  traverse  a  distance 
of  1,500  kilometres,  striking  almost  due  South  from  Cape 
Vela,  ascending  the  Apure  and  Meta,  crossing  high  ranges 
of  mountains.  On  the  other  hand  Belalcazar,  after 
assisting  Pizarro  to  conquer  Peru,  had  seized  the  Kingdom 


DISCOVERY  AND  SETTLEMENT  17 

of  Quito  north-east  through  Cauca  and  Tolima,  and 
thence  marched  to  Bogota.  So  jealous  were  these  con- 
quistadores  of  their  glory,  that  a  sanguinary  quarrel  was 
but  narrowly  averted.  Finally,  however,  the  trio  reached 
terms,  leaving  a  sufficient  garrison  to  maintain  the  towns 
and  administration  organised  by  Quesada,  while  the 
three  doughty  explorers  returned  to  the  coast  and  sailed 
for  Spain.  All  three  gained  little  by  their  exertions, 
ending  their  days  miserably  ;  but  Spain  profited  by  the 
work  of  these  and  many  others. 

Well  before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
Spanish  dominion  was  firmly  established.  Unfortunately 
it  was  essentially  an  imperialistic  rule,  the  true  centre  of 
government  being  kept  in  Spain,  though  perforce  great 
latitude  and  enormous  powers  had  to  be  delegated  to 
the  local  representative  of  his  Most  Catholic  Majesty. 
Jealousy  and  distrust  were  the  ruling  forces  of  the 
government.  Lieutenants  were  sent  out  surrounded 
by  regal  pomp,  but  were  often  called  back  to  answer 
accusations,  or  to  allay  offence  given  by  some  unwise 
act  of  ostentation  or  authority.  All  important  posts 
were  filled  by  men  sent  out  from  Spain  ;  foreigners 
were  forbidden  to  set  foot  in  or  trade  with  South  America  ; 
and  the  civil  power,  aided  by  the  Inquisition  at  Lima 
and  Cartagena,  kept  the  country  in  severe  fetters.  While 
towns  sprang  up,  the  natives  were  speedily  almost  ex- 
terminated as  the  result  not  so  much  of  warfare  as  of 
forced  labour  in  the  mines  and  fields,  and,  according  to 
some  contemporary  writers,  of  the  diseases  spread  by 
contact  with  the  Spaniards.  As  a  result,  the  importation 
of  black  slave  labour  from  Africa  was  authorised. 


18  COLOMBIA 

New  Granada  was  early  divided  into  provinces.  On 
the  Isthmus  were  Panama  and  Veragua,  dependent 
on  the  city  of  Panama.  On  the  continent,  Santa  Marta, 
Cartagena,  Popayan  and  the  New  Kingdoms  were 
governed  from  Bogota,  and  the  whole  of  the  provinces 
were  subject  to  the  Viceroyalt  y  of  Peru.  In  1564  New 
Granada  became  a  Presidency,  to  be  erected  into  a 
Viceroyalty  in  1719  ;  again,  from  1724  to  1740,  it  became 
a  Presidency ;  finally  the  Viceroyalty  was  restored 
in  the  latter  year  and  lasted  to  the  end  of  the  Spanish 
dominion.  All  this  was  symptomatic  of  a  policy  directed 
by  the  narrowest  views  of  home  interests,  which 
necessarily  engendered  repression  and  distrust.  As  a 
rule  efforts  were  chiefly  directed  towards  the  extraction 
of  as  much  gold,  silver  and  precious  stones  and  valuable 
woods  as  possible  from  the  country,  little  being  done  to 
further  either  its  material  or  intellectual  development. 
The  plethora  of  office  holders  from  Spain,  and  the  grow- 
ing influence  and  wealth  of  ecclesiastical  orders,  ended  in 
arousing  much  local  dissatisfaction.  In  1767  the  Jesuits, 
in  pursuance  of  a  wider  policy,  were  expelled  from 
the  land  ;  but  for  a  time,  at  all  events,  this  appears 
to  have  made  matters  worse.  For  it  is  pointed  out  by 
historians  that  the  Jesuits  were  the  chief  movers  in  the 
engineering  of  independence.  In  1781  occurred  the 
revolt  of  the  Comuneros  of  Socorro,  only  overcome  by 
treachery.  This  was  followed  by  the  turmoil  of  the 
French  Revolution,  echoes  of  which  were  spread  in  Colom- 
bia by  Antonio  Narino  and  others.  Although  Narino 
was  suppressed,  the  result  of  his  propaganda  was  seen 
in  the  expedition  of  Francisco  de  Miranda  in  1801  to 


Church  of  the  True  Cross,    Mcdcllui 


DISCOVERY   AND  SETTLEMENT  19 

free  Venezuela.  The  ferment  thus  set  up  finally 
culminated  in  a  proclamation  of  independence  being 
declared  on  20th  July,  1810,  at  Bogota.  For  nine  years 
the  colonies  fought  against  the  levies  of  Spain  which 
were  poured  into  the  land.  Finally,  the  imperial  power 
was  broken  by  Simon  Bolivar  at  the  battle  of  Boyaca, 
fought  on  7th  August,  1819.  Bolivar,  who  had  been 
acclaimed  as  Liberator,  was  elected  President  by  the 
Congress  of  Angustura  (now  Ciudad  Bolivar).  He  at 
once  set  about  forming  the  confederation  of  the  Captain 
Generalcy  of  Venezuela,  the  Viceroyalty  of  New  Granada 
and  the  Presidency  of  Quito,  into  the  Republic  of 
Colombia.  It  was  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  after 
such  a  political  education  as  the  country  had  had  the 
course  of  government  should  run  smoothly.  Unfor- 
tunately the  very  constitution  of  the  Republic  contained 
the  seeds  of  disintegration.  The  country  having  been 
divided  into  the  three  departments  of  Cundinamarca  or 
Colombia,  Venezuela  and  Ecuador,  Francisco  de  Paula 
Santander  was  elected  Vice-president  at  Bogota.  Now, 
Santander,  a  statesman  of  probity  and  splendid  organising 
powers,  was  a  man  of  ideas,  and  a  strong  advocate  of 
federal  administration,  thus  coming  into  immediate 
conflict  with  Bolivar,  who  as  a  conquering  soldier 
was  a  vehement  partisan  of  centralisation.  Bolivar's 
successes  at  the  Battle  of  Carabobo  (1821),  which  assured 
the  independence  of  Venezuela,  and  before  Cartagena 
and  a  few  other  towns  which  had  held  out  for  the  King  of 
Spain,  smoothed  over  matters  for  a  time,  allowing  much 
useful  work  to  be  done,  such  as  the  abolition  of  the 
Inquisition    and    the    emancipation    of    slaves.       But 


20  COLOMBIA 

provincialism  was  at  work.  In  1830  Venezuela,  under  the 
leadership  of  General  Paez,  declared  itself  free.  Ecuador 
broke  away,  and  Peru  was  in  open  revolt,  although 
subdued  for  a  time  by  General  Sucre  at  the  battle  of 
Tarqui  (1829).  Thereupon  the  government  was  recon- 
stituted as  the  Republic  of  New  Granada,  with  Santander 
as  President.  Curiously  enough  his  rule  was  essentially 
that  of  centralisation,  and  proved  eminently  successful 
and  tranquillising  for  a  time.  Then  came  a  period  of 
unrest,  with  open  revolt.  In  1858  the  Constitution  of  the 
22nd  of  May  united  the  then  existing  eight  departments 
into  the  Confederacion^  Granadina.  Conflicts  continued, 
however,  and  Tomas  Cipriano  Mosquera,  who  had  been 
President  in  1841,  having  organised  a  revolution  against 
President  Aspina,.  gained  the  upper  hand  ;  whereupon  he 
called  a  conference  at  Rionegro,  and  in  September,  1861, 
a  Law  was  signed,  seven  States  confederating  as  the 
United  States  of  Colombia.  Mosquera  was  elected  for 
his  second  term  as  President  in  1867,  and  should  be 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  best  and  most  progressive 
of  Colombian  rulers.  He  established  Steam  Navigation 
in  the  Magdalena  River,  secularised  the  communities, 
began  the  erection  of  the  national  Capitol  and  under  his 
auspices  Colombia  was  given  the  most  liberal  constitution 
framed  for  civilised  countries.  Under  this  constitution 
Colombia  made  great  headway  towards  liberty  and 
enlightenment.  But  as  the  outcome  of  the  Rionegro 
Conference,  a  further  move  demanding  decentralisation 
was  made ;  for  in  1863  eight  departments,  including 
Panama,  were  erected  into  Sovereign  States,  with  a 
Federal   District.     In   practice   it   was   found   that   this 


DISCOVERY  AND  SETTLEMENT  21 

fostering  of  the  provincial  sentiment  did  not  conduce  to 
local  or  general  prosperity.  Conflicts  were  numerous, 
often  degenerating  into  armed  risings.  As  a  kind  of 
compromise  Dr.  Rafael  Nunez  was  elected  President 
in  1879,  and  was  followed  by  another  moderate  liberal ; 
then  on  re-election  he  had  to  face  an  open  revolution  of 
the  extreme  liberals.  Nunez  suppressed  the  opposition 
and  as  the  result  a  new  constitution,  abolishing  the 
sovereignty  of  the  States,  and  calling  into  being  the 
centralised  Republic  of  Colombia,  was  promulgated. 
Nunez,  elected  for  a  third  term,  was  succeeded  by 
Sanclemente,  under  whose  rule  civil  war  once  more 
broke  out,  directed  by  General  Rafael  Uribe-Uribe  (1899- 
1902).  Naturally  these  continually  renewed  disturbances 
were  detrimental  to  the  country  at  home  and  abroad. 
Debts  were  piled  up,  national  credit  sank,  and  while 
industrial  and  social  progress  was  retarded,  differences 
arose  abroad.  The  most  noteworthy  and  deeply  felt  of 
these  was  the  revolt  of  the  department  of  Panama,  aided 
by  the  United  States  of  America,  and  the  establishment 
by  that  power  of  the  Canal  Zone.  But  under  General 
Rafael  Reyes,  with  his  national  prestige  as  a  great 
explorer  in  the  district  of  Putumayo  and  as  commander 
of  the  Government  forces  in  the  revolution  of  1885,  the 
country  made  giant  strides,  and  foreign  confidence  was 
to  a  large  extent  restored.  Steps  were  taken  to  develop 
the  country  by  the  construction  of  railways  and 
roads ;  and  a  policy  of  education  adopted.  He  was 
too  much  identified  with  old  conflicts  to  meet  with 
universal  acceptance  among  his  own  people,  but  he 
undoubtedly  prepared  the  way  for   the  enlightened  and 

3— (2248) 


22  COLOMBIA 

successful  rule  of  his  latest  successor,  Sr.  Carlo  S.  E. 
Restrepo. 

Everything  happily  points  to  the  fact  that  Colombia 
has  now  settled  down  to  an  orderly  development  of  its 
material,  intellectual  and  political  activities  under  a 
fairly  liberal  constitution,  which  recognises  the  liberty 
of  the  individual,  subject  to  the  interests  of  the  whole 
community.  While  the  division  of  the  country  into 
departments  and  provinces  allows  the  necessary  latitude 
for  local  efforts,  the  centralised  form  of  the  government, 
once  firmly  established,  prevents  sectional  conflicts,  and 
gives  the  country  strength  to  meet  its  own  problems 
and  authority  to  face  the  world  as  a  really  united  power, 
anxious  and  ready  to  take  its  due  place  in  the  march  of 
civilisation. 

Since  the  new  constitution  the  following  have  been 
chiefs  of  the  executive — 


1886-7. 

Campo  Serrano  (Designadc 

1887-8. 

Payan  (vice-president) 

1887-8. 

Rafael  Nunez 

1888-92. 

Carlos  Holguin 

1892-96. 

Caro  (vice-president) 

1896- 

Quintero  (Designado) 

1896-98. 

Caro 

1898- 

Marroquin  (vice-president) 

1898-1900. 

Sanclemente 

1900-4. 

Marroquin 

1904-8. 

Rafael  Reyes 

1908-9. 

de  Angulo  (Designado) 

1909- 

Rafael   Reyes 

1909- 

Jorge  Holguin  (Designado) 

1909- 

Rafael  Reyes 

1909- 

Holguin   (Designado) 

1909-10. 

Valencia 

1910. 

Carlos  E.  Restrepo 

CHAPTER  V 

DEPARTMENTS   AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF   POPULATION 

Colombia  of  to-day,  with  its  461,000  square  miles  and 
its  population  of  5,472,604,  is  divided  into  fifteen  Depart- 
ments, two  Intendencias  and  seven  Comisarias  Especiales, 
these  latter  two  classes  of  division  being  practically 
colonial  districts.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  enumeration 
includes  Panama,  which  although  de  facto  a  Sovereign 
Republic,  is  still  claimed  by  the  Colombian  government 
as  forming  part  of  its  national  territory. 

As  already  shown  in  the  brief  historical  review,  the 
administrative  divisions  of  the  country  have  undergone 
frequent  changes,  notably  so  since  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  This  was  inevitable,  for  quite  apart 
from  political  changes,  the  gradual  exploration  and 
development  of  the  country  necessitated  amalgamation 
in  some  directions,  division  and  sub-division  in  others. 
Thus,  while  a  law  of  1908  created  thirty-five  departments, 
another  of  1909  re-established  the  divisions  of  1905, 
when  there  were  ten  departments,  supplemented  by  four 
Intendencias.  The  following  year  four  more  departments 
were  brought  into  being.  No  doubt  with  further  settle- 
ment the  Intendencias  and  Comisarias  will  be  further 
divided  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  Departments. 

In  spite  of  all  this  re-manipulation,  however,  the 
divisions  are  still  very  unequal  as  regards  area,  population 
and  relative  importance.  We  will  deal  with  them  here 
in  alphabetical  order. 

23 


24  COLOMBIA 

As  regards  the  growth  of  population,  it  was  estimated 
to  be  2,000,000  in  1800,  but  ten  years  later  the  figure 
was  given  as  1,400,000,  and  at  the  declaration  of 
Independence  as  1,223,598.  Part  of  the  discrepancy, 
no  doubt,  was  due  to  the  enumeration  of  slaves  and  wild 
Indians  under  the  old  regime,  and  the  more  restricted 
counting  of  heads  at  a  later  period.  In  1905,  however, 
a  fairly  accurate  census  was  taken,  the  figures  recorded 
being  4,533,777.  To-day  Colombia  is  the  third  most 
populous  country  in  South  America,  only  being  exceeded 
by  Brazil  and  Argentina. 

Population  is  densest  in  Cundinamarca,  Atlantico 
and  Caldas,  and  least  so  in  Magdalena.  The  disparity 
of  sexes  varies  considerably  ;  while  there  are  170,495 
men  to  170,703  women  in  Caldas,  there  are  only  357,302 
men  to  383,635  women  in  Antioquia.  It  should  be  ex- 
plained that  this  last  named  department,  like  Tolima, 
has  an  enterprising  population,  strongly  given  to 
emigration  to  the  less  developed  districts  of  the  Republic, 
where  all  kinds  of  opportunities  offer  themselves  to 
hardworking,  resourceful  men.  It  is  found,  too,  that 
here  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  large  towns  have 
an  undue  proportion  of  female  inhabitants  ;  for  instance, 
in  Bogota  there  are  50,557  men  to  70,700  women,  yet  the 
excess  of  females  over  males  for  the  whole  of  the 
Department  of  Cundinamarca  is  only  37,024. 

Antioquia. — This  department  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Bolivar,  on  the  east  by  San- 
tander,  on  the  south  by  Boyaca,  Tolima  and  Caldas, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Choco,  and  has  an  area  given  as 
approximately  34,401   square  miles,  with  a  population 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  25 

of  741,000.  About  5,221,167  acres  are  State  waste  and 
forest  lands  and  943,283  acres  belong  to  the  department. 
Its  physical  character  is  extremely  varied.  On  the 
north  the  coastal  belt,  and  on  the  east  the  slope  down 
to  the  valley  of  the  Magdalena  is  hot  and  humid,  possessing 
fairly  good  soil.  Towards  the  interior,  the  country  is 
largely  mountainous,  split  up  by  numerous  valleys  and 
rivers,  the  soil  here  is  rather  cold  and  even  somewhat 
arid.  But  ever  since  the  discovery  of  the  country 
in  1541  by  Jeronimo  Luis  Tojelo,  who  ascended  a  charming 
valley,  called  by  the  natives  Yamesies,  which  the 
Spaniards  named  San  Bartoleme  (now  known  as  the 
Medellin),  the  country  has  been  peopled  by  a  hard- 
working, steady  and  prolific  population,  who  have  made 
the  department  one  of  the  richest  in  the  Republic. 
Several  of  its  rivers  are  practicable  for  steamers  ;  the 
Magdalena  forms  the  Eastern  boundary,  the  Cauca 
traverses  the  department  from  the  south  to  the  north, 
and  its  affluent,  the  Nechi,  passing  by  Zaragoza,  taps  the 
country  to  the  east  ;  on  the  west  is  the  Atrato,  which 
runs  into  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  Other  rivers  navigable 
by  canoes  and  rafts  are  the  Nare,  San  Bartoleme,  Arquia, 
Sucio  and  Murri.  There  are  four  main  roads,  the  Santa 
Domingo,  or  North  Road,  34  miles  long  ;  the  Caldas, 
which  runs  into  Medellin,  15£  miles ;  the  Envigado, 
9  miles ;  and  La  Quiebra,  12  miles.  Considerable  attention 
is  being  paid  by  the  Government  to  the  construction  of 
roads  and  bridges,  the  works  being  carried  on  by  local 
road  boards  under  the  direction  of  the  Minister  of  Public 
Works.  Although  some  of  these  roads  are  available  for 
wheeled  traffic,  it  is  felt  that  some  better  organisation  is 


26  COLOMBIA 

required  for  keeping  the  highways  in  repair  after  con- 
struction. Medellin,  capital  of  the  department,  is 
connected  with  the  Magdalena  by  railway  to  Puerto 
Berrio,  some  500  miles  from  Barranquilla,  and  with 
Cauca  river  by  the  Amaga  railway  of  which  about  20  miles 
are  open  to  traffic. 

Agriculture  and  mining  are  the  chief  industries.  Land 
is  generally  cultivated  in  small  holdings,  which  accounts 
for  the  excellent  results  achieved  with  coffee,  the  principal 
crop.  In  1911  the  production  was  estimated  as  follows  : 
coffee  13,592,960  lb.,  cocoa  717,650  lb.,  rice  459,800  lb., 
sugar-cane  23,371,460  lb.,  bananas  6,167,100  lb.,  plantains 
66,586,400  lb.,  ground  nuts  3,905,700  lb.,  beans  6,656,800 
lb.,  maize  19,425,000  lb.,  yucca  47,494,800  lb.,  cotton 
274,400  lb.,  tobacco  932,800  lb.  Cattle  fattening  is 
carried  on  to  a  small  extent,  but  is  capable  of  very  large 
extension.  There  is  a  small  export  trade  in  timber 
(cedar,  mahogany,  hard  woods)  and  forest  rubber.  So 
far  the  regular  cultivation  of  rubber  has  not  been  taken 
up.  Antioquia  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  mineral 
wealth.  In  1739  there  were  12,728  mines  being  worked, 
almost  solely  for  the  extraction  of  gold  and  silver.  In 
1911  the  value  of  the  export  of  gold  bullion  was  £490,967, 
gold  dust  £259,359,  platinum  £69,179.  Both  quartz 
and  placer  mining  is  carried  on.  A  large  number  of  the 
rivers  have  rich  auriferous  alluvia  ;  among  these  are  the 
Nechi,  Porce,  Riogrande,  Guadalpe,  Nare,  Nus,  San 
Bartolome,  San  Juan,  Guadualejo,  Quebradonda,  Barroso, 
Atrato,  Arquia,  Murri,  Sucio  and  the  Murindo.  Platinum 
is  found  in  the  watersheds  of  the  San  Juan  and  Atrato- 
Coal  is  found  as  far  apart  as  Amaga  and   Caceres   and 


n^3 


<3 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  27 

Zaragoza.  Iron  is  also  mined  and  manufactured  into 
rails,  mills,  etc.  There  are  many  indications  of  copper 
and  other  metals.  Industrial  development  is  remarkably 
progressive,  being  specially  concentrated  at  Medellin. 
The  principal  towns  are  Medellin  the  capital,  founded 
in  1675,  population  71,000;  Antioquia,  the  old  capital, 
founded  in  1541,  population  10,610;  Sonson,  population 
293,050 ;   Yarumal,  population  21,284. 

The  departmental  income  is  about  1,433,000  dollars 
gold,  and  the  expenditure  rather  more,  of  which  433,320 
dollars  gold  are  devoted  to  education.  The  eighty-seven 
municipalities  have  a  total  income  of  about  620,000 
dollars  gold.  This  department  has  no  provinces,  the 
prefecturas,  or  chief  offices  of  the  provinces,  having  been 
suppressed  in  the  department,  except  in  the  district  of 
Uraba. 

Atlantico,  the  smallest  of  the  departments,  is  a  wedge- 
shaped  coastal  district,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Atlantic,  on  the  east  by  the  Magdalena  river,  which 
cuts  it  off  from  the  department  of  that  name,  and  on  the 
south  and  west  by  Bolivar.  It  has  an  area  of  1,082 
square  miles,  with  a  population  of  114,887.  It  is  a  flat 
land,  sloping  to  the  sea  or  the  Magdalena,  with  a  tropical 
climate,  rather  trying  to  white  people,  especially  in  the 
low-lying  portions  when  inundated  after  the  rainy  season, 
which  lasts  from  May  to  November.  Transport  is  good, 
thanks  to  the  Magdalena  running  along  the  greater 
length  of  the  department,  the  railway  from  Barranquilla 
to  Puerto  Colombia  (164  miles),  and  the  highway  between 
Barranquilla  and  Usiacuri  (10  miles).  Cultivation  of 
the  soil  is  carried  out  on  a  fairly  large  scale,  the  principal 


28  COLOMBIA 

crops  being  sugar-cane,  cocoa,  and  tobacco  ;  there  is 
also  a  considerable  industry  in  fattening  cattle  on  the 
plains  round  about  Sabanalarga.  Barranquilla,  the 
capital  (population  48,907),  is  still  the  chief  fluvial  port 
of  the  Republic  with  its  harbour  at  Puerto  Colombia. 

The  other  important  towns  are  Sabanalarga  (population 
16,042),  Soledad  (8,200),  Repelon  (2,900),  Baranoa 
(5,300),  and  Campo  de  la  Cruz  (2,600).  The  two 
provinces  are  Barranquilla  and  Sabanalarga.  Out 
of  a  departmental  income  of  217,560  dollars  gold, 
34,830  dollars  are  devoted  to  education,  to  which  the 
Municipality  of  Barranquilla  adds  14,000  dollars. 

Bolivar,  a  coastal  department,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Atlantic  and  the  Department  of  Atlantico,  on  the 
east  by  the  Magdalena  river  and  department,  on  the 
south  by  Antioquia,  and  the  west  by  Antioquia  and  the 
Atlantic.  It  has  an  area  of  23,938  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  420,890.  The  land  is  mostly  low  lying, 
with  slopes  towards  the  coast  and  the  valley  of  the 
Magdalena,  and  has  a  tropical  climate,  except  in  the  high- 
lands, in  that  part  which  forms  a  southerly  wedge  into 
Antioquia.  It  is  well  watered  by  the  navigable  water- 
ways of  the  Magdalena,  Sinu  and  Cauca  and  their 
numerous  tributaries.  To  supplement  these  natural 
channels  of  traffic,  a  railway  has  been  constructed  between 
Cartagena  and  Calamar  on  the  Magdalena,  and  roads 
for  wheeled  vehicles  are  either  in  course  of  construction 
or  are  projected  between  Barranquilla  and  Turbaco, 
between  Monteria  and  Magangue,  and  others.  Much 
attention  is  paid  to  agriculture,  maize,  rice,  bananas, 
coffee,   cocoa,   sugar,   tobacco   and  cotton   being  raised 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  29 

on  a  large  scale,  while  cattle  breeding  and  fattening 
is  a  big  and  growing  industry,  a  considerable  export 
trade  with  adjoining  departments  and  Panama  existing. 
The  breeding  of  horses,  donkeys  and  mules  is  another 
important  branch  of  industry.  From  the  forests  timber 
for  building  purposes  and  cabinet  making,  as  well  as 
tanning  materials,  and  dyewoods,  resins  and  medicinal 
plants,  together  with  a  little  rubber  are  derived.  Ten 
gold  mines  are  being  worked.  Industrial  activity  is 
mostly  centred  at  Cartagena  (population,  36,632),  the 
capital.  The  departmental  revenue  is  526,580  dollars 
gold,  and  that  of  the  fifty-four  municipalities  269,989 
dollars  gold. 

The  provinces  are  :    (1)  Cartagena,  population  82,700 
(2)  Carmen,  46,300  ;  (3)  Corozal,  39,500  ;   Chinu,  50,200 
(4)  Sincelejo,  44,400  ;    (5)  Sinu,  capital  Lorica,  81,600 
(6)   Mompos,   39,700;     (7)   Magangue,   31,200.     Besides 
these  there  are  the  West  Indian  islands  of  San  Andre  de 
Providencia  and  Providencia,  which  may  become  of  great 
importance  on  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  with  a 
united   population   of     5,300,    mostly   English-speaking 
negroes  and  mulattos. 

Boyaca,  a  department  of  irregular  shape,  about  350 
miles  long  by  150  broad,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Santander  and  the  Republic  of  Venezuela,  on  the  south 
by  Meta,  on  the  west  by  Cundinamarca  and  Antioquia, 
and  contains  17,654  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
586,499,  mostly  Indians  and  mestizos.  It  lies  chiefly 
on  the  elevated  plateaux  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera, 
with  a  narrow  tongue  of  plains  between  Venezuela  and 
Meta.     Its  population  is  principally  engaged  in  cultivating 


30  COLOMBIA 

the  tierra  fria,  raising  wheat,  barley,  maize,  alfalfa, 
potatoes,  beans,  garden  vegetables,  a  very  little  coffee 
and  sugar,  cattle  and  horses.  The  river  Suarez  is  naviga- 
ble between  Chiquinquira  (capital  of  the  province  Occi- 
dente,  population  14,500)  and  Lake  Fuquene.  There 
are  no  railways,  but  probably  the  best  road  in  the 
Republic  unites  Tunja  with  Bogota,  104  miles  long  ;  a 
branch  road  connects  Duitama  (population  9,900)  with 
Sogamoso,  a  very  ancient  and  interesting  town,  formerly 
the  headquarters  of  the  Chibchas  priests,  who  dwelt 
in  palaces  roofed  with  gold.  A  road  is  now  in  con- 
struction which  will  unite  the  districts  of  Samaca 
(population  2,127),  Sachica  (960),  and  Chiquinquira- 
Mining  is  carried  on  in  a  small  way  over  an  extensive 
area.  There  are  eleven  gold  mines  in  working  order, 
twelve  silver,  ten  copper,  seven  mixed,  three  quicksilver, 
two  marble  quarries,  while  157  emerald  mines  have  been 
"  denounced,"  or  pre-empted.  Asphalte  is  being  worked, 
though  in  insignificant  quantities,  and  there  are  salt 
works  at  Chita,  Muneque,  Chameza,  Pajarito,  Recetoz, 
Mongua,  Pauto,  Chaquipay  and  Pizarra.  The  industries 
carried  on  are  chiefly  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton 
and  wool,  tanning,  and  milling.  The  capital  is  Tunja 
(8,600  feet  above  sea-level,  population  8,407),  the  ancient 
northern  capital  of  the  Chibchas.  At  one  time  it  almost 
rivalled  Bogota  and  still  contains  many  fine  old  buildings, 
including  the  Cathedral,  Bishop's  palace  and  the 
University.  There  are  three  public  libraries  in  the  city, 
and  the  department  spends  some  20,000  dollars  gold 
annually  on  education,  yet  the  Boyacan  population 
is    said    to    be    both    fanatical    and    illiterate.      The 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  31 

departmental  income  is  352,838  dollars  gold,  including  a 
subvention  of  222,400  dollars  from  the  Government. 
The  municipalities  have  a  united  income  of  186,223 
dollars  gold. 

The  provinces  are  :  (1)  Centro  (capital  Tunja),  popu- 
lation 68,000  ;  (2)  Marquez  (capital  Ramiriqui,  10,765), 
59,300  ;  (3)  Occidente  (capital  Chiquinquira,  68,300)  ; 
(4)  Ricaurte  (Moniquira,  10,800),  3,400;  (5)  Oriente 
(Guateque,  7,000),  42,700;  (6)  Valderama  (Jerico, 
5,200),  25,600  ;  (7)  Norte  (Soata,  10,700),  46,600  ;  (8) 
Gutierez  (Cocuy,  7,700),  44,800  ;  (9)  Nunchia  (Nunchia), 
14,900;  (10)  Neira  (Miraflores,  19,150),  55,300;  (11) 
Sugamuxi  (Sogamoso,  14,700),  68,500;  (12)  Tundama 
(Santa  Rosa,  5,400),  56,900  ;  and  the  territory  of  Vasquez, 
1,800. 

Caldas,  a  central,  mountainous  district,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Antioquia,  from  which  it  was  only  recently 
separated,  on  the  east  by  Cundinamarca,  on  the  south 
by  Cauca  and  on  the  west  by  the  territory  of  the  Choco, 
has  an  area  of  7,915  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
345,000,  almost  entirely  whites.  The  long  range  of  the 
Western  Cordillera,  with  its  perpetually  snow-capped 
peaks,  shuts  it  off  from  the  densely  forested,  damp  and 
intensely  hot  Choco,  and  on  the  opposite  boundary 
the  land  slopes  down  to  the  valley  of  the  Magdalena, 
where  in  the  forests  and  plains  the  temperature  ranges 
between  24°  and  30°  centigrade.  The  river  Cauca 
traverses  the  district  from  south  to  north,  almost 
cutting  it  in  two.  Both  the  Magdalena  and  Cauca 
are  navigable  by  small  steamers,  and  their  tributaries, 
La  Vieja,  the  Risarada,  and  La  Miel,  are  also  used  as 


32  COLOMBIA 

highways.  Apart  from  this,  the  only  means  for 
intercommunication  is  by  means  of  a  few  mule  tracks 
and  footpaths,  recognised  roads  being  non-existent. 
The  people  who  partake  of  the  sturdy  qualities  of  the 
Antioquians,  devote  most  of  their  energies  to  agriculture 
and  mining.  Heavy  and  varied  crops  are  raised.  On 
the  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras  wheat,  barley,  maize  and 
potatoes  are  grown  largely ;  on  the  lower  slopes,  pro- 
tected by  forests,  coffee,  yuca,  plantains  and  ground 
nuts  receive  most  attention,  while  in  the  lower  hot 
valleys  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  cocoa  and  pasturage 
predominates. 

Cattle  raising  is  a  growing  industry.  A  considerable  com- 
merce exists  in  preparing  palm  straw  and  various  fibres 
for  the  manufacture  of  hats,  sacking  and  cordage.  Owing 
to  the  recent  separation  of  Caldas  from  Antioquia  statis- 
tics are  deficient  as  to  the  exact  position  of  mining, 
but  2,610  mines  have  been  pre-empted,  and  there  are 
extremely  rich  alluvium  in  most  of  the  river  valleys. 
Manizales  is  the  capital.  The  departmental  revenue  is 
466,192  dollars  gold,  a  considerable  portion  is  derived 
from  the  tax  on  alcohol. 

The  provinces  are  :  (1)  Manizales,  population  74,753  ; 
(2)  Salamina,  62,842 ;  (3)  Riosucio,  78,731  ;  (4)  Pereira, 
92,551  ;   (5)  Marulanda,  36,728. 

Cauca  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  El  Valle  and  Tolima, 
on  the  east  by  the  Huila  and  Caqueta,  on  the  south  by 
Narino,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific ;  it  has  an  area  of 
21,882  square  miles  and  a  population  of  211,800,  of  whom 
only  a  little  over  25  per  cent,  are  whites.  Much  of  the 
territory  lies  between  the  Western  and  Central  Cordilleras, 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  33 

and  though  the  climate  is  cold  on  the  highlands,  in  the 
beautiful  valley  of  the  Cauca  it  is  temperate  to  hot. 
The  whole  country  is  fertile,  even  the  volcanic  slopes  of 
the  higher  peaks  are  covered  by  rich  pastures,  The 
navigable  rivers  are  the  Cauca,  the  Micay,  the  Timbiqui 
from  the  Pacific  to  the  town  of  that  name,  the  Saija 
from  the  Pacific  as  far  as  Cupi,  the  Guapi,  and  for  small 
boats  the  Guaju,  the  Temuy,  the  Caqueta,  the  Orteguasa, 
Palo,  Hato,  La  Paila,  Caguan,  Desbaratado  and  several 
others.  Mule  and  pack  tracks  are  few  and  poor,  but  a 
contract  has  been  signed  for  the  prolongation  of  the 
Pacific  Railway  through  the  country  to  Popayan. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  wheat,  maize,  yuca, 
plantains,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  potatoes,  beans,  cocoa  and 
tobacco  being  raised,  while  cattle  is  bred  and  fattened 
on  the  pastures  of  Purace,  Timbio  and  other  districts. 
Mining  is  of  some  importance,  gold  and  platinum  being 
exported.  Between  1895  and  1912,  4,106  mines  have 
been  "  denounced."  Much  gold  alluvium  is  to  be 
found  in  the  valleys.  The  forests,  in  certain  parts  quite 
dense,  produce  a  little  rubber.    Popayan  is  the  capital. 

The  departmental  revenues  amount  to  155,298  dollars 
gold,  of  which  41,312  dollars  (together  with  9,798  con- 
tributed by  municipalities)  is  devoted  to  education.  The 
twenty-i  ;ne  municipalities  have  a  united  income  of  about 
69,908  dollars  gold. 

There  are  five  provinces  :  (1)  Caldas  (capital  Bolivar, 
population  17,800),  population  47,800 ;  (2)  Camilo 
Torres  (capital  Caloto,  8,600),  39,800;  (3)  Popayan, 
67,800;  (4)  Santander  (population  of  capital,  9,900), 
24,700  ;   (5)  Silvia  (capital  of  same  name,  10,000),  31,800. 


34  COLOMBIA 

Cundinamarca,  a  central  district  on  the  higher  Andean 
plateau,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Boyaca,  on  the 
east  by  Boyaca  and  Meta,  on  the  south  by  Meta  and 
Huila,  and  on  the  west  by  Tolima  and  Caldas  ;  it  has  an 
area  of  8,629  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  714,000, 
of  whom  slightly  less  than  half  are  whites.  While  about 
a  third  of  the  department  is  occupied  by  the  higher 
plateau,  including  the  Sabana  of  Bogota,  and  its  surround- 
ing mountains,  where  the  climate  ranges  from  the  cool 
to  the  frigid  regions  of  perpetual  snow,  two-thirds  are 
on  the  slopes  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Magdalena  and 
the  middle  watershed  of  the  Orinoco,  where  the  climate 
shades  from  the  temperate  to  the  tropical.  Corresponding 
with  these  changes  of  elevation  and  climate  are  great 
diversities  of  physical  features  and  vegetation.  On  one 
hand  we  have  the  rugged  and  arid  mountains,  on  the 
other  the  dense  vegetation  of  the  tropics,  interspersed 
by  grassy  plains.  Apart  from  the  Magdalena,  which  is 
navigable  for  steamers  which  ply  between  the  ports  of 
Girardot  (population  4,471),  Guataqui  (693),  and  Beltran 
(941),  there  are  few  rivers  of  importance,  most  are  mere 
mountain  torrents.  The  river  Bogota,  crossing  the 
sabana  near  the  capital,  forms  the  great  Tequendama 
fall  of  450  ft.  The  population  is  fairly  scattered,  there 
being  110  municipalities,  in  none  of  which,  outside  of 
Bogota,  do  the  inhabitants  much  exceed  6,000.  While 
the  population  is  engaged  in  most  branches  of  trade  and 
industry,  agriculture  absorbs  the  attention  of  the  greater 
number.  The  land  round  about  Bogota  and  other 
large  towns  is  well  cultivated,  producing  fruit  and  vege- 
tables.     The  crops,  however,  cover  almost  the  whole 


© 

cq 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  35 

range  of  the  cultivated  plants  ;  wheat,  barley,  maize, 
beans  and  potatoes  in  the  higher  regions  ;  coffee  of 
renowned  quality  on  the  slopes  ;  sugar,  cocoa,  bananas, 
tobacco  and  tropical  fruits  in  the  valleys  ;  cattle  graze 
on  the  sabana  and  on  the  llanos  of  the  Orinoco  watershed, 
and  large  herds  of  pigs  are  raised.  Considerable  attention 
is  paid  to  mining.  Iron  is  mined  in  the  provinces  of 
Facatativa  and  Zipaquira ;  gold  and  silver  is  found 
widely  distributed,  as  well  as  copper,  lead,  coal,  jasper, 
rock  crystal  and  asphalte.  Salt  production  is  an  import- 
ant industry  in  four  or  more  provinces.  Although 
there  are  considerable  forest  lands,  the  production 
from  these  is  not  great.  The  department  is  served  by 
four  railways  :  (1)  The  Northern,  39  miles  long,  uniting 
Bogota   with    Chia,    Cajica,    Zipaquira    and    Nemocon ; 

(2)  The  Sabana  Railway,  25  miles,  uniting  the  capital 
with    Fontibon,    Mosquera,    Madrid    and    Facatativa ; 

(3)  The  Southern,  19  miles,  running  out  to  Bosa,  Soacha 
and  Sibate  ;  (4)  The  Girardot,  running  from  Facatativa 
through  Zipacon,  Anolaima,  La  Mesa,  Anapoima,  Tocaima 
to  Girardot. 

Bogota,  capital  of  the  Republic  and  of  the  department 
(altitude  over  5,000  ft.),  has  a  population  of  121,000. 

The  departmental  income  amounts  to  949,348  dollars 
gold,  of  which  137,412  dollars  are  devoted  to  education. 

The  provinces  are  :  (1)  Bogota,  population  165,400  ; 
(2)  Choconta  (capital  of  same  name,  population  9,900), 
45,700;  (3)  Guavio  (Gacheta,  12,500),  44,200;  (4) 
Facatativa,  77,500;  (5)  Girardot  (10,400),  22,200; 
(6)  Guaduas  (10,600),  77,700;  (7)  Guatavita  (6,300), 
23,800;     (8)    Oriente    (Caqueza,    10,000),    54,900;     (9) 


36  COLOMBIA 

Tequendama  (La  Mesa,  11,200),  58,100;  (10)  Ubate 
(9,600),  52,600;  (11)  Zipaquira  (10,000),  60,900;  (12) 
Sumapaz  (Fusagasuga  13,500),  31,200. 

El  Valle  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Caldas  and  the 
Choco,  on  the  east  by  Tolima,  on  the  south  by  Cauca, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific.  It  has  an  area  of  4,179 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  217,159,  about  50  per 
cent,  of  whom  are  white.  The  main  stretch  between  the 
Western  and  Central  Cordilleras  has  a  gentle  slope  down 
to  the  Cauca  river,  with  an  altitude  of  from  3,000  to 
5,500  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  enjoys  an  equable,  warm 
climate.  It  is  well  wooded  and  the  vegetation  luxurious, 
all  kinds  of  fruits  of  the  temperate  and  warm  zones 
growing  in  large  quantities  and  to  wonderful  size.  On 
the  rich  pastures  cattle  thrive  amazingly.  Cultivation 
is  carried  far  up  the  foot-hills,  consequently  the  produce 
varies,  including  rice,  maize,  potatoes,  beans,  coffee, 
cocoa,  tobacco,  plantains,  sugar-cane,  etc.  Mining  is 
destined  to  become  an  extensive  industry.  At  present, 
claims  have  been  filed  for  446  gold,  30  platinum,  165  gold 
and  silver  mines,  and  one  each  of  emery,  talc,  copper 
and  iron.  Coal  is  also  mined,  and  there  are  large 
deposits  of  rock  crystal.  The  Cauca,  Vieja,  Dagua, 
Anchicaya,  Raposo,  Cajambre,  Naya  and  Juramangui, 
which  are  all  more  or  less  navigable,  possess  auriferous 
alluviums.     Cali  is  the  capital. 

The  provinces  are  :  Cali,  population  48,582  ;  Palmira 
(capital  of  same  name,  24,312),  46,632  ;  Buga  (capital 
of  same  name,  11,578),  31,728;  Tulua  (capital  of  same 
name,  10,825),  27,077  ;  Roldanillo  (capital  of  same  name, 
9,196),  28,451 ;  Cartago  (capital  of  same  name,  18,618), 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  37 

24,115  ;  and  Buenaventura  (capital  of  same  name,  6,476), 
10,574. 

Huila  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Cundinamarca, 
on  the  east  by  Meta  and  Caqueta,  on  the  south  by  Cauca, 
on  the  west  by  Cauca  and  Tolima.  It  has  an  area  of 
8,687  square  miles  and  a  population  of  158,191.  Like 
most  of  the  central  districts  it  enjoys  marked  differences 
of  physical  features  and  climate.  The  low-lying  parts 
fringing  the  Magdalena  and  east  of  that  river,  are  hot 
and  humid,  and  malaria  is  prevalent.  On  the  foot-hills 
the  climate  is  pleasant,  and  higher  up  cold.  Over  half 
of  the  area  is  Government  forest  and  mountain  land. 
Cattle  raising  is  well  developed.  Wheat,  maize,  rice, 
coffee,  sugar  and  tobacco  crops  are  raised  on  a  big  scale. 
Four  quartz  mines  are  worked  in  the  Organos  reigon, 
while  the  auriferous  deposits  of  the  Magdalena,  Yaguara, 
Bache  and  Aipe  also  receive  attention.  A  small  beginning 
has  been  made  in  spinning  and  weaving  both  cotton 
and  wool,  but  the  manufacture  of  the  so-called  Panama 
straw  hats  is  a  considerable  industry.  Neiva,  the  capital, 
is  at  1,479  feet  above  sea-level,  has  an  even  temperature 
of  27°  C.  and  a  population  of  21,852.  It  has  a  large 
public  market  and  is  an  important  centre  of  commerce. 

The  departmental  revenues  amount  to  152,400  dollars 
gold,  and  those  of  the  twenty-nine  municipalities  to 
140,034  dollars. 

The  provinces  are  :  Neiva,  population  72,039 ; 
Garzon  (capital  of  same  name,  10,787),  59,523  ;  and  La 
Plata  (capital  of  same  name,  5,130),  26,627. 

Magdalena,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  and  the  Republic  of 

4— (2248) 


38  COLOMBIA 

Venezuela,  on  the  south  by  Norte  de  Santander,  and  on 
the  west  by  Bolivar  and  the  Atlantic.  It  has  an  area 
of  20,463  square  miles  and  a  population  of  149,547, 
including  the  Comisaria  of  Goajira,  212,560.  It  is 
mostly  a  low-lying  alluvial  country,  watered  by  the 
Magdalena,  the  Cesar  and  many  other  minor  rivers,  but 
on  the  eastern  border  there  are  the  foot-hills  and  the 
heights  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  and,  shutting  off  the 
Goajira  Peninsula  from  the  rest  of  the  department, 
the  great  mass  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta, 
the  snow-clad  top  to  which  the  range  owes  its  name,  with 
a  base  of  some  5,000  square  miles,  and  rising  at  one  peak 
to  19,000  ft.  Apart  from  these  higher  districts,  the 
climate  is  hot  and  damp,  in  some  parts  of  the  Magdalena 
valley  reaching  the  tierra  ardiente  degree.  Coffee,  cocoa, 
sugar  and  bananas  are  the  principal  crops  raised,  but 
most  other  vegetables  and  fruits  can  be  grown  within  the 
borders.  There  is  some  mining  in  the  mountains  and 
along  the  rivers.  The  capital  is  Santa  Marta  (population 
5,348),  the  oldest  city  in  Colombia,  at  one  time  a  busy 
port,  now  again  rising  into  importance. 

The  provinces  are  Santa  Marta,  70,903 ;  Padilla 
(capital  Riohacha,  4,426),  20,250;  Valledupar  (7,301), 
24,077  ;  Banco,  20,141  ;  Sur  (capital  Rio  de  Oro,  5,894), 
13,776. 

Narino  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Cauca,  on  the  east 
by  Caqueta,  on  the  south  by  the  Putumayo  and  Ecuador, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  ocean.  It  has  an  area  of 
10,039  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  292,535.  It 
may  be  divided  into  three  distinct  zones  :  (1)  lying 
between  the  Western  and  Eastern  Cordilleras,  more  or 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  39 

less  mountainous,  occupying  almost  a  third  of  the  area, 
and  thickly  populated,  two-thirds  of  the  people  being 
Indians  or  mestizos.  This  part  is  well  watered  by  the 
navigable  Patia,  the  Mayo,  Juanambu,  Pasto  and 
Guaitara,  and  produces  potatoes,  barley,  rice,  cocoa, 
sugar  and  rubber.  (2)  The  Western  slope  down  to  the 
Pacific,  rather  more  than  a  third  of  the  department, 
which  is  dense  forest,  except  for  a  small  zone  fringing 
the  road  from  the  high  plateaux  to  the  coast.  This 
part  is  also  well  watered  by  the  navigable  rivers  Patia, 
Guapi,  Iscuande,  Telembi,  Tapaje,  Mira,  Mataje,  and 
numerous  other  streams  open  to  boats  and  canoes.  (3) 
The  Eastern  portion  is  composed  of  foot-hills  and  valleys, 
with  dense  forests,  wherein  roam  many  wild  Indian  tribes. 
There  are  few  whites.  Road-making  has  been  carried 
on  with  great  energy  in  the  department,  and  fair  highways 
or  paths  exist  between  Pasto  and  La  Cruz,  56  miles  ; 
Pasto  and  the  Cauca,  49^-  miles  ;  Pasto  to  Tuquerres, 
49£  miles  ;  Pasto  to  Ipiales,  54^-  miles ;  Tuquerres  to 
Barbacoas,  99  miles  ;  and  Pasto  to  Mocoa,  72£  miles. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  but  there  are  great 
possibilities  as  regards  mining  ;  2,452  quartz  and  alluvial 
mines  have  been  "  denounced,"  but  only  six  are  being 
systematically  worked,  five  of  them  being  Colombian 
companies.  Pasto,  the  capital,  lies  8,655  ft.  above 
sea-level.  The  departmental  revenues  amount  to  738,325 
dollars  gold,  and  those  of  forty-eight  municipalities 
390,504  dollars. 

The  provinces  are  :  Pasto,  74,425  ;  Tuquerres  (capital 
of  same  name,  15,652),  58,742  ;  Obando  (capital  Ipiales, 
14,615),  64,387  ;    Juanambu  (capital  La  Union,  9,139), 


40  COLOMBIA 

26,633  ;  La  Cruz  (capital  of  same  name,  9,451),  28,192  ; 
Barbacoas  (capital  of  same  name,  7,840),  17,833  ;  and 
Nunez  (capital  Tumaco,  11,702),  22,341. 

Norte  de  Santander  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east 
by  Venezuela,  on  the  south  by  Boyaca,  on  the  west  by 
Santander  and  Magdalena.  It  has  an  area  of  6,708 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  204,381.  It  is  traversed 
by  spurs  of  the  Central  and  Eastern  Cordilleras,  the 
temperature  falling  to  46°  F.  on  the  barren  paramos  of 
Bagueche,  Tamar,  Tierranegra  and  Cachiri,  and  rising 
to  89°  F.  in  the  valleys  of  Zulia,  Catatumbo  and  Sarare. 
As  might  be  expected  the  crops,  which  are  the  leading 
sources  of  wealth  of  the  department,  vary  greatly,  ranging 
from  potatoes  and  wheat  to  coffee  and  cocoa.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  lead  and  coal  are  mined,  and  petro- 
leum wells  also  exist.  The  Zulia  is  navigable  by  steam 
launches,  and  the  Catatumbo  and  Tarra  by  boats.  A 
great  northern  road  is  in  course  of  construction,  and  is 
now  open  from  the  capital  to  Puente  San  Rafael.  San 
Jose  de  Cucuta  (population  20,364),  the  capital,  lies 
984  ft.  above  sea-level,  enjoys  a  mean  temperature  of 
84°  F.,  has  wide,  tree-shaded  streets,  and  good  markets. 
It  is  united  to  Puerto  Villamizar  on  the  Zulia  by  a  railway. 
The  departmental  revenues  are  about  218,340  dollars 
gold. 

The  provinces  are  :  Ocana  (capital  of  same  name, 
16,814),  63,816 ;  Pamplona  (capital  of  same  name, 
14,834),  43,362  ;    Cucuta  (20,346),  97,203. 

Santander  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Magdalena 
and  Norte  de  Santander,  on  the  east  by  Boyaca,  on  the 
south  by  Boyaca,   and  on  the  west  by  Antioquia  and 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  POPULATION  41 

Bolivar.  It  has  an  area  of  19,161  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  400,084.  Its  physical  features,  climate 
and  agricultural  conditions  are  much  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Norte  de  Santander,  though  it  has  more  extensive 
low-lying  plains  watered  by  the  Sogamoso  and  the 
Suarez.  The  Sogamoso,  Lebrija  and  Carare  are  navigable 
by  small  boats.  A  good  but  short  road  is  open  between 
Bucaramanga  and  Florida.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  talc  and 
asphalte  are  found  in  the  district,  the  Rio  de  Oro  having 
rich  auriferous  deposits.  Wheat,  rice,  coffee,  sugar,  cocoa 
and  tobacco  are  the  principal  crops.  Bucaramanga 
(population  19,735),  the  capital,  lies  in  a  valley,  3,153  ft. 
above  sea-level,  with  a  variation  of  temperature 
between  64°  F.  and  88°  F. 

This  department  has  a  revenue  estimated  at  312,940 
dollars  gold,  which  is  insufficient  to  meet  its  expenditure. 
The  municipalities  have  revenues  amounting  to  about 
50,000  dollars. 

The  provinces  are  :  Bucaramanga,  72,029  ;  Charala 
(capital  of  same  name,  9,861),  24,943  ;  Malaga  (capital 
of  same  name,  7,630),  42,500;  Piedecuesta  (8,076), 
14,212;  San  Andres  (12,721),  27,725;  San  Gil  (9,965), 
44,419  ;  Socorro  (11,427),  40,798  ;  Velez  (8,637),  76,453  ; 
Zapotoca  (10,598),  57,073. 

Tolima  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Antioquia,  on  the 
east  by  Cundinamarca  and  Huila,  and  on  the  west  by 
Cauca  and  Valle.  It  has  an  area  of  10,811  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  282,426.  This  peculiarly  long-shaped 
district  has  the  Central  Cordillera  for  its  western  boundary, 
the  land  then  sloping  eastward  to  the  Magdalena.  On 
these   lowlands   the   climate   is   rather   warm,   but   the 


42  COLOMBIA 

plains  lend  themselves  admirably  to  cattle  farming,  a 
large  head  of  cattle  being  raised,  often  many  thousand 
on  one  farm.  On  the  foot-hills  good  cocoa,  coffee  and 
tobacco  is  grown.  The  upper  part  of  the  Cordillera  is 
given  over  to  agriculture,  coffee  and  other  crops  being 
grown.  Mining  is  exceptionally  well  developed,  some 
sixty  properties  being  worked  for  gold  or  silver.  Most 
of  the  rivers  are  auriferous.  The  department  enjoys 
the  advantage  of  being  tapped  by  the  Dorada  Railway ; 
the  Magdalena ;  the  Saldana,  open  to  steam  launches ; 
the  Ata  and  Cucuana  rivers,  open  to  small  boats  ;  and  the 
Quindio  mule  path.  Tobacco,  textile  and  hat  factories 
carry  on  a  flourishing  trade.  Ibague,  the  capital,  4,262  ft. 
high,  with  a  population  of  24,566,  is  the  chief  centre  of 
activity.  The  department  have  an  income  of  395,843 
dollars  gold,  and  the  municipalities  (of  which  there  are 
thirty-six),  of  125,004  dollars. 

The  provinces  are  :  Ibague,  54,776  ;  Guadas  (capital 
Guamo,  15,345),  135,558;  Honda  (8,636),  23,980; 
Libano  (16,186),  43,935  ;   and  Ambalema  (6,599),  24,127. 

Choco  (Intendencia),  is  a  comparatively  narrow  slip 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  on  the  east 
by  Antioquia,  Caldas  and  Valle,  on  the  south  by  El  Valle, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Comisaria  of  Jurado  and  Panama. 
It  is  a  densely  forested  slope  down  from  the  Western 
Cordillera,  and  is  intensely  hot  and  very  damp,  for  it 
rains  nearly  all  the  year  round.  It  has  an  area  of  15,033 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  68,127,  mostly  negroes 
and  mulattoes.  Its  chief  products  are  gold,  platinum, 
rubber,  ivory  nuts,  dyewoods,  timber,  cocoa,  and  salted 
fish.     There  is  no  doubt  vast  wealth  in  the  forests,  and 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  43 

also  in  the  auriferous  rivers.  Twenty  mines  are  being 
worked  and  380  have  been  explored.  Quibdo  (popula- 
tion, 15,756),  the  capital,  lies  inland,  138  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  surrounded  by  hills.  The  rapidity  of  its  growth 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1908  its  population  was 
only  4,000.     The  provinces  are  Atrato  and  San  Juan. 

A  few  years  ago  a  Comisaria  was  carved  out  of  the 
coastal  strip  from  the  frontier  of  Panama  to  the  river 
San  Juan,  and  is  named  Jurado.  This  strip  is  coveted 
by  the  neighbouring  Republic  and,  as  it  was  a  constant 
cause  of  dispute,  it  was  considered  advisable  to  place  it 
directly  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  executive  at  Bogota, 
which  is  represented  locally  by  a  Comisario. 

Goajira  (Comisaria),  is  a  peninsula,  almost  entirely 
surrounded  by  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela. 
It  has  an  area  of  5,019  miles.  Along  the  Gulf  of  Vene- 
zuela there  is  a  range  of  the  foot  of  the  Central  Cordillera. 
Most  of  the  rest  of  the  district  is  low-lying  forest  land, 
inhabited  chiefly  by  Indians,  who  gather  forest  products 
and  raise  a  useful  breed  of  horses.  The  population  of 
the  Comisaria  is  53,013,  its  capital  San  Antonio.  It 
is  divided  into  the  districts  (or  Seccions)  of  Norte, 
Occidente,  and  Sur. 

Meta  (Intendencia),  a  large  track  of  country,  85,328 
square  miles  in  extent,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Boyaca 
and  Venezuela,  on  the  east  by  Venezuela,  on  the  south 
by  the  territory  of  Caqueta  and  on  the  west  by  Huila 
and  Cundinamarca.  It  slopes  from  the  Eastern  Cordillera 
foot-hills  to  the  Guainia  and  Orinoco  rivers.  While  the 
western  and  southern  parts  are  wooded,  the  remainder 
are  rolling  llanos,  covered  with  coarse  and  inferior  grass. 


44  COLOMBIA 

A  considerable  amount  of  cattle  is  raised,  but  it  is  of  poor 
quality.  Much  of  the  land  is  still  unexplored.  Its 
chief  trade  outlet  is  by  the  Meta,  through  Venezuela 
to  the  Atlantic.  It  is  divided  into  three  provinces  : 
Villavicencio,  population  4,774 ;  San  Martin,  3,444 ; 
and  Orocue,  1,091.  The  number  of  uncivilised  Indians 
is  estimated  at  10,000. 

Caqueta  is  a  vast  territory  of  187,258,  administered 
as  a  Comisaria,  forming  part  of  the  great  maze  of  eastern 
mountain,  forest  and  rolling  plains.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Yapura  river,  has  a  population  estimated  at 
24,543,  of  which  2,034  inhabit  the  capital,  Florencia. 

The  other  Comisarias  are  Arauca,  the  western  tongue 
of  marshy  llanos  lying  between  Boyaca,  Meta  and 
Venezuela  ;  Vaupes  (capital  Calamar,  545),  population 
5,545  ;  Uraba  (capital  Acaudi,  1,476),  6,476  ;  Jurado 
(capital  Pizarro,  5,657),  8,207  ;  and  the  much  disputed 
Putumayo  (capital  Mocoa,  1,380),  31,380. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CONSTITUTION   AND   GOVERNMENT 

By  the  existing  Constitution  the  government  of  the 
country  is  divided  into  the  Executive,  the  Legislative 
and  the  Judiciary.  It  is  the  Executive  which  has  the 
predominant  influence,  in  accordance  with  the  political 
tendency  which  substituted  for  the  old  federation  of 
Sovereign  States  a  centralised  form  of  rule. 

(1)  The  Executive  consists  of  a  President  and  his 
Council  of  Ministers.  The  President  is  elected  by  direct 
popular  vote  for  a  term  of  four  years.  He  may  be  elected 
for  a  second,  or  even  a  third  term,  but  these  must  not  run 
consecutively. 

All  Ministers  are  appointed  by  the  President,  and  may 
be  removed  from  one  office  to  another  or  dismissed 
by  him.  They  are,  however,  responsible  to  the 
Legislature,  in  whose  deliberations  they  join.  There 
are  seven  Ministers,  who  preside  respectively  over  the 
departments  of  State  (Gobierno),  Foreign  Relations, 
Hacienda  (Revenues),  Treasury  (Expenditure),  War, 
Public  Works  and  Education.  They  are  essentially 
Secretaries  of  State  to  the  President  and  carry  out  his 
policy. 

Each  of  the  territorial  departments  is  administered 
by  a  Governor,  who  is  appointed  and  is  removable  by 
the  President.  The  Governor  is  assisted  by  a  Depart- 
mental Assembly,  popularly  elected  at  the  rate  of  one 
deputy  for  every  12,000  inhabitants,  but  possessing  little 

45 


46  COLOMBIA 

power  of  initiation  or  control.  Governors  designate 
Prefects  to  administer  the  various  provinces  into  which 
their  department  are  divided,  who  are  appointed  by  the 
President.  Alcaldes  presiding  over  municipalities  are 
nominated  by  the  Governor  or  Prefect,  and  appointed 
by  the  Government.  Alcaldes  are  at  once  Executive 
and  Judicial  officers,  acting  in  the  latter  capacity  prac- 
tically as  a  Court  of  First  Instance  in  both  civil  and 
criminal  cases.  They  preside  over  Consejos  Municipales 
(Municipal  Councils),  whose  members  are  elected  by 
popular  vote.  These  local  councils  are  fairly  active 
bodies  within  their  limited  jurisdiction,  and  have  con- 
siderable local  influence.  They  are  aristocratic  and 
plutocratic  rather  than  proletarian,  representing  the 
landed  and  commercial  interests. 

Intendencias  and  Comisarias  are  governed  by 
Intendentes  and  Comisarios  appointed  by  the  President ; 
they  possess  both  executive  and  legislative  functions, 
subject  solely  to  the  control  of  the  National  Executive. 

Posts  and  Telegraphs  are  under  the  Executive.  Educa- 
tion is  under  local  control,  though  supervised  through 
the  Minister  of  Education  by  the  Executive. 

Defence. — The  ultimate  power  of  the  Executive 
rests  on  the  forces  controlled  by  the  Minister  for  War. 
The  strength  of  the  permanent  army  is  fixed  annually 
by  an  act  of  Congress,  and  service  is  compulsory.  The 
artillery  is  divided  into  batteries  and  sections ;  the 
cavalry  into  regiments  of  two  or  three  squadrons  ;  the 
infantry  into  companies  of  100  men,  six  companies 
forming  a  battalion,  two  or  more  battalions  a  brigade, 
two  brigades  a  division,  and  two  divisions  a  corps.     The 


CONSTITUTION   AND   GOVERNMENT         47 

total  permanent  force  in  1913  amounted  to  6,031.  The 
war  footing  is  estimated  at  over  50,000  officers  and  men. 
The  navy  consists  of  a  fleet  of  five  cruisers,  three  gunboats, 
one  troopship  and  a  number  of  auxiliary  vessels.  The 
Police  force  numbers  5,619. 

(2)  Legislative  Power  resides  in  Congress,  consisting  of 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate 
is  composed  of  one  member  for  every  120,000  inhabitants, 
and  one  additional  for  any  fraction  exceeding  50,000. 
These  Senators  are  elected  for  a  period  of  four  years  by 
electoral  colleges,  whose  members  are  chosen  by  the 
Departmental  Assemblies.  Members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  are  elected  for  two  years  by  direct  vote, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  member  for  every  50,000 
inhabitants. 

The  Intendencias  each  send  a  member,  who  is  elected 
by  the  Intendente,  his  secretary,  and  three  electors 
nominated  by  the  Municipal  Council  of  the  local  capital. 

Sessions  are  annual,  lasting  ninety  days,  but  the 
President  may  call  special  sessions.  He  may  even  con- 
voke a  National  Assembly  in  place  of  Congress,  whenever 
a  fundamental  law  affecting  the  Constitution  is  in  question. 
Laws  passed  by  both  houses  receive  the  Presidential 
assent.  The  President  possesses  a  limited  power  veto. 
If  he  objects  to  a  Bill,  the  Congress  may  overrule  his 
decision  by  securing  a  two-thirds  majority  in  both 
Houses.  The  President  may  still  oppose,  on  the  ground 
that  the  law  is  contrary  to  the  Constitution.  Should 
the  Congress  insist  on  passing  the  law,  the  final  decision 
is  left  to  the  Supreme  Court. 

Budgets    are    prepared    by    the    President    and    his 


48  COLOMBIA 

advisers  and  voted  by  Congress.  Subsidies  for  educa- 
tional and  other  purposes  are  made  to  the  departments, 
whose  Assemblies  have  delegated  powers  for  raising  local 
revenues,  while  the  municipalities  also  have  restricted 
powers  of  taxation.  These  limited  powers  include  the 
imposition  of  import  (both  customs  and  octroi)  and 
transit  duties. 

After  every  Presidential  election  Congress  appoints  a 
first  and  second  Designado,  who  act,  consecutively,  as 
chief  of  the  Executive  in  the  event  of  the  death  or 
resignation  of  the  President. 

(3)  Judicial  administration  is  divided  into  a  Supreme 
Court,  a  Superior  Court  for  each  department,  Municipal 
Courts  and  Commercial  Courts.  The  Supreme  Court 
consists  of  nine  Judges,  of  whom  four  are  elected  by  the 
Senate  and  five  by  the  House  of  Representatives  from  a 
Presidential  list  of  nominees,  and  sit  for  five  years'  The 
duties  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  to  decide  whether  any 
laws  or  executive  decrees  brought  before  them  conform 
to  the  Constitution  ;  to  act  as  a  final  appeal  Court  ; 
to  appoint  the  Judges  in  the  Superior  Courts  from 
nominations  made  by  the  respective  departmental 
Assemblies.  Judges  in  the  Superior  Courts  sit  for  four 
years,  Municipal  Judges  are  elected  by  two  municipal 
Councils.  Alcaldes  fulfil  in  a  measure  certain  of  the 
duties  of  the  French  Juges  de  Paix  and  Juges 
d' Instructions. 

The  Civil  Code  is  based  on  the  Code  Napoleon,  as  is 
the  criminal  Code.  There  are  two  Commercial  Codes, 
one  devoted  to  Maritime  Law,  largely  based  on  Spanish 
practice.     So  far  no  Separate  Commercial  Courts  have 


oq 


CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT        49 

been  constituted,  although  provided  for  in  the  Con- 
stitution. The  codes  are,  of  course,  modified  and 
supplemented  by  Legislative  Acts  and  Executive  Degrees, 
both  of  which,  as  stated,  are  subject  to  revision  by  the 
Supreme  Court. 


CHAPTER  VII 

FINANCE 

Public  Debt,  Income  and  Expenditure,  Banking 

One  of  the  happiest  and  surest  auguries  for  Colombia's 
future  prosperity  is  the  steady  recovery  of  both  her 
National  and  commercial  credit.  This  recovery,  made 
possible  by  measures  adopted  under  General  Reyes,  was 
assured  by  those  taken  under  the  Government  of 
President  Restrepo.  When  critics  refer  to  the  anomalous 
fact  that  a  national  currency  of  paper  is  at  a  discount  of 
10,000  per  cent,  that  is  to  say,  a  dollar  note  fetches  only  1 
per  cent,  gold  on  the  open  market,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  at  one  time  the  exchange  had  risen  to  25,500  per 
cent.,  with  violent  fluctuations,  and  that  there  had  been 
a  long  history  of  default  in  payment  of  interest  on  foreign 
loans.  All  that  has  been  altered.  The  exchange, 
officially  recognised  at  10,000  per  cent,  discount,  remains 
round  about  that  point  on  the  open  market  ;  the  issue 
of  paper  money  has  been  stopped  and  is  being  slowly 
replaced  by  gold,  silver  and  nickel  coinage  ;  interest, 
together  with  commission  on  arrears,  is  being  regularly 
paid  on  the  foreign  debt  and  a  sinking  fund  maintained. 
Public  Debt. — It  was  probably  inevitable  with  such 
prolonged  political  unrest  following  upon  the  war  of 
independence  that  financial  difficulties  should  have 
supervened.  Moreover,  great  financial  disturbances  were 
created  by  the  drawbacks  attaching  to  borrowing  at  high 
rates,    with    heavy    commissions    and    brokerages,    the 

50 


FINANCE  51 

indiscriminate  issue  of  paper  money  by  the  Central 
Government  and  the  departments  in  the  time  of  the 
last  revolution  (1899-1902).  There  was  no  forced 
currency  of  paper  before  1885,  but  the  terrible  commercial 
slump  which  began  in  1879,  when  the  price  of  sulphate 
of  quinine  quickly  dropped  from  16s.  6d.  to  3s.  6d.  per 
ounce,  killing  the  export  trade  of  cinchona  from  Colombia, 
while  the  fall  in  the  price  of  coffee  and  tobacco  crippled 
the  agriculture  of  the  country  and  the  national  finances, 
forced  the  Government  to  issue  the  unredeemable  paper 
currency.  To  these  disasters  legislative  measures  added 
fresh  horrors.  Originally  a  bi-metallic  basis  of  currency 
was  adopted,  though  private  banks  had  the  right  to 
issue  notes  not  classed  as  legal  tender.  When  as  a 
result  of  the  commercial  crisis  both  gold  and  silver 
were  drained  out  of  the  country,  the  banks,  which 
had  scarcely  exercised  their  privilege,  threw  a  large 
amount  of  notes  on  the  market.  So  far  had  this 
degeneracy  gone  that  in  1886  Raphael  Nunez  made  the 
paper  dollar  (or  peso)  of  the  National  Bank  the  legal 
monetary  unit.  This  Banco  Nacional,  which  had  been 
instituted  in  1880  by  Nunez,  although  granted  extra- 
ordinary privileges  had  not  won  the  confidence  of  the 
country,  and  consequently  the  Government  had  to 
subscribe  for  over  1,000,000  of  its  2,500,000  dollar  capital. 
A  year  later  its  bills  were  made  legal  tender,  which  other 
banks  had  to  accept  at  their  face  value.  Laws  and 
decrees  issued  in  quick  succession,  all  tending  to  secure  the 
monopoly  of  the  National  Bank,  and  in  spite  of  the  free 
coinage  of  silver  at  *500  fine,  the  mass  of  paper  money 
accumulated.     To  stem  this  flood  a  law  was  passed  in 


52  COLOMBIA 

1894  by  which  further  issues  were  to  be  made  only 
in  the  event  of  foreign  war  or  internal  rebellion.  Then 
began  the  era  of  civil  strife,  the  rapid  growth  of  paper 
dollar  circulation  and  the  phenomenal  rise  of  exchange. 
After  the  cessation  of  hostilities  in  1903  the  10,000  per 
cent,  discount  appeared  to  be  adopted  by  general  consent, 
an  improvement  which  was  confirmed  by  the  law  of  that 
year  fixing  a  gold  standard,  recognising  the  right  of  all 
contracting  parties  to  stipulate  payment  in  gold  or  paper, 
permitting  the  free  circulation  of  foreign  money,  and 
establishing  a  Junta  de  Amortization.  All  this  tended 
to  quiet  matters,  for  the  new  Council  of  Redemption  was 
entrusted  with  the  collection  of  certain  revenues  payable 
in  gold.  This  gold  was  put  to  auction  on  the  exchange, 
and  the  paper  dollars  received  for  it  cancelled.  Just 
when  the  benefits  of  its  work  were  beginning  to  be  felt, 
the  Junta  was  dissolved  by  General  Reyes,  who  once 
more  attempted  to  form  a  national  bank.  This  time 
it  was  the  Banco  Central,  floated  with  a  capital  of 
8,000,000  dollars,  less  than  half  of  which  was  subscribed 
for,  and  only  about  a  fifth  paid  up.  Granted  great 
privileges,  it  also  had  the  beneficial  duty  of  collecting 
some  of  the  government  revenues  and  devoting  from 
25  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  proceeds  to  a  sinking  fund 
for  redemption  of  the  paper  money.  The  bank  was  also 
strong  enough  to  ensure  the  payment  of  interest  on 
foreign  bonds  and  to  reduce  the  general  bank  interest 
from  7  to  2  per  cent,  per  month.  When  General  Reyes 
resigned,  the  Government  contract  with  the  bank  was 
rescinded,  but  whatever  evil  effects  this  might  have  had 
on  exchange,  were  largely  counteracted  by  a  law  which 


FINANCE  53 

fixed  the  legal  value  of  paper  and  gold  as  10,000  to  100 
for  the  payment  of  taxes.  Then  in  1909  followed  the 
creation  of  the  Junta  de  Conversion,  whose  duties  are  : 
to  exchange  old  bills  for  new  50,  100  and  1,000  dollar 
notes  (largely  to  minimise  fraud),  and  for  silver  at  -900 
fine  and  nickel  coins.  There  is  also  a  surtax  of  2  per  cent, 
on  the  amount  of  specific  duty  on  imports  (which  produced 
176,181  dollars  in  1911),  devoted  to  redemption  of  notes. 
In  1910  the  English  sovereign  was  made  legal  lender, 
the  Government  accepting  payment  of  taxes  in  gold  or 
paper,  the  former  at  an  exchange  value  of  9,900  per  cent, 
premium.  Following  upon  this  the  Departmental 
Government  of  Antioquia  re-opened  the  Mint  at  Medellin, 
and  is  now  coining  gold  at  the  rate  of  about  £60,000 
monthly.  These  measures,  together  with  the  cancel- 
lation of  over  30,000,000  forged  paper  pesos,  have  greatly 
steadied  exchange  and  the  money  market  generally,  and 
there  is  every  prospect  of  still  further  improvement. 

Even  more  unfortunate  has  been  the  history  of  Colom- 
bia's foreign  bonded  debt.  This  debt  was  contracted 
in  war  time,  when  not  only  was  high  interest  promised, 
but  heavy  commissions  and  discounts  had  to  be  allowed, 
so  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  nominal  advance  never 
reached  the  country.  Of  the  total  foreign  indebtedness 
of  La  Gran  Colombia,  New  Granada  accepted  responsi- 
bility for  £3,776,791.  Payment  of  interest  was  very 
faulty,  so  that  by  1873  the  capital  and  accrued  interest 
ran  up  to  £6,630,000.  It  was  recognised  that  there  was 
no  hope  of  such  an  indebtedness  being  liquidated,  and 
after  negotiations  the  bondholders  accepted  obligations 
to  the  amount  of  £2,000,000.     Again  there  was  default, 

5— (2248) 


54  COLOMBIA 

and  after  further  negotiations  the  total  debt  of  £3,514,442 
was  cut  down  to  £2,700,000.  As  the  result  of  non-pay- 
ment of  interest,  the  late  Lord  Avebury,  representing  the 
bondholders,  and  Don  Jorge  Holguin,  Financial  Agent, 
discussed  the  whole  question  and  came  to  a  formal 
agreement,  whereby  the  interest  was  reduced  to  3  per 
cent.  ;  of  the  accrued  interest  amounting  to  £351,000. 
70  per  cent,  was  to  be  paid  off,  together  with  commission, 
by  annual  drawings,  and  the  further  30  per  cent,  is  to  be 
discharged  if  and  when  the  United  States  pays  any 
compensation  for  Colombia's  Panama  claim.  As  security 
the  bondholders  were  given  a  pledge  of  12  per  cent, 
of  the  customs  revenue,  to  be  increased  to  15  per 
cent,  should  the  sum  received  fall  below  5,000,000 
dollars  gold.  All  these  obligations  have  been  faithfully 
fulfilled. 

Meanwhile  the  internal  debt,  which  amounted  to 
24,719,541  dollars  in  1910  was  reduced  to  1,315,781 
dollars  in  1912,  and  at  the  present  average  redemption 
drawings,  should  be  extinguished  in  less  than  two  years, 
So  improved  is  the  position  that  we  are  told  by  the 
Special  Commissioner  of  the  Advisory  Committee  to  the 
Board  of  Trade  on  Commercial  Intelligence  who  visited 
Colombia  on  behalf  of  the  British  Government  in  1911, 
that  an  international  group,  represented  by  a  British 
Syndicate,  actually  submitted  proposals  for  a  loan  of 
£5,000,000  to  the  Colombia  Government.  This  was  to  be 
applied  to  the  unification  of  the  external  debts,  the 
repayment  of  certain  railway  mortgages  and  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  Sabana  and  Girardot  Railways.  On  the 
other  hand,  French  capitalists  have  offered  to  form  a 


FINANCE 


55 


Mortgage  Bank.  Clearer  evidence  of  restored  confidence 
could  hardly  be  forthcoming. 

This  looks  well  for  the  future,  for  the  total  indebted- 
ness per  capita  is  extremely  low,  but  it  must  be  confessed 
that  at  present  the  Government,  Departmental  and 
Municipal  revenues  are  very  small,  certainly  insufficient 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  work  to  be  done. 

Income  and  Expenditure. — By  far  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  the  national  revenue  is  obtained  from  import 
duties.     The  budget  for  1913  was  made  up  as  follows — 


Revenue 

Dollars, 

gold. 

Customs 

.     8,250,000 

Port  dues 

224,000 

Surtax 

167,000 

Sanitary  dues 

8,500 

Export  dues 

100,000 

Consular  fees 

480,000 

Hospital  tax 

90,000 

Railways 

120,000 

Salt  and  Mine  rents 

.      1,636,000 

Monopolies  (cigars  and  matches)  . 

65,000 

Stamps  and  stamped  paper 

400,000 

Intendencias 

57,000 

Magdalena  canalisation  tax 

120,000 

River  navigation 

100,000 

Mines 

24,500 

Miscellaneous 

248,000 

12,500,000 

Expenditure 

Ministry  of  the  Interior     . . 

.     1,264,515 

Foreign  Affairs 

329,677 

Finance 

.     1,070,591 

War 

.     2,661,279 

Treasury 

544,316 

Public  Debt              

.     2,551,556 

Posts  and  Telegraphs 

.     1,029,681 

56 


COLOMBIA 

Expenditure — continued 

Dollars, 

gold. 

Justice 

. . 

980,724 

Pensions 

284,206 

Education 

634,297 

Public  Works 

394,972 

Fomento 

'otal 

754,086 

1 

.    12,500,000 

On  referring  to  Chapter  V  some  idea  of  local 
administrative  resources  will  be  obtained. 

Banking. — While  the  sources  of  income  are  restricted, 
looking  to  the  country  as  a  whole,  it  must  be  said  that 
even  greater  inconvenience  is  felt  as  the  result  of  the 
very  limited  currency  fund  which,  counting  paper  at 
the  legal  exchange,  hardly  amounts  to  10s.  per  head 
of  the  present  population.  A  little  relief  is  felt  from 
the  fact  that  silver  and  nickel  circulates  on  the 
Venezuelan  and  the  Panama  frontiers  and  in  the  Choco, 
while  there  is  always  a  certain  amount  of  foreign 
money  in  circulation  at  the  seaports.  If  exchange 
can  be  kept  steady,  the  coinage  of  gold  at  Medellin 
will  in  time  help  matters.  But  the  real  hope  for  a 
prosperous  and  unfettered  commerce  is  the  extension 
of  banking  facilities.  At  present  there  is  a  great  scarcity 
of  such  facilities.  As  explained  above,  the  Banco 
Central  was  originally  founded  as  a  national  bank  of 
issue.  But  its  privileges  were  revoked  and  it  now  has 
only  the  standing  of  any  other  bank.  Its  nominal 
capital  is  2,300,000  dollars,  and  in  June,  1912,  it  had  a 
reserve  of  309,906  dollars,  and  deposits  amounting  to 
over  340,000  dollars  ;  it  pays  a  dividend  of  over  10  per 
cent.     Of  the  other  three  banks  in  Bogota  the  Banco  de 


FINANCE  57 

Colombia  has  12,000  shares,  which  are  quoted  on  the 
local  market  at  65  dollars  (English  gold),  has  over 
2,710,000  dollars  on  deposit,  and  pays  3  dollars  interest 
per  share.  The  shares  of  the  Banco  de  Bogota  are  quoted 
at  a  little  over  2  dollars  gold  ;  it  had  in  June,  1912,  over 
958,000  dollars  on  deposit.  The  Banco  Hipotecario 
has  a  capital  of  500,000  dollars,  all  shares  issued  and 
60  per  cent,  paid  thereon  ;  has  a  reserve  of  90,300 
dollars,  and  214,221  dollars  on  deposit.  Interest  on 
deposits  varies  from  3  to  6  per  cent,  according  to 
term  of  call,  and  all  the  banks — apart  from  the  Banco 
de  Colombia — allow  3  per  cent,  per  annum  on  the 
minimum  monthly  balance  on  current  account.  At 
Barranquilla  there  are  two  banks :  the  Banco  Com- 
mercial, which  has  a  paid-up  capital  of  about  180,000 
dollars  ;  and  the  Atlantico.  According  to  the  Census 
report,  they  paid  from  14  to  16  per  cent,  per  annum. 
At  Medellin  there  are  two  banks,  the  Banco  de  Sucre 
and  the  Banco  Republicano,  each  with  capitals  of  600,000 
dollars,  the  shares  of  the  former  being  quoted  at  a  premium 
of  20  and  of  the  second  at  60  per  cent.  In  this  Depart- 
ment of  Antioquia  there  are  two  other  banks,  at  Rionegro 
and  at  Sonson.  At  Cartagena  there  are  three  banks  : 
Banco  de  Bolivar  (paid-up  capital  500,000  dollars, 
deposits  under  150,000),  Banco  de  Cartagena  (capital 
100,000  dollars),  Banco  Union  (capital  400,000  dollars). 
At  Tunja  there  is  the  Banco  de  Boyaca.  At  Manizeles, 
the  rapidly  growing  capital  of  Caldas,  the  Banco  de 
Manizeles,  with  a  united  paid-up  capital  and  reserve  of 
over  110,000  dollars,  has  less  than  100,000  dollars  on 
deposit.    At  Popayan  the  Banco  de  Popayan  has  a  paid-up 


58  COLOMBIA 

capital  of  20,000  dollars  and  deposits  to  over  twice 
that  sum.  At  Cali  the  Banco  Comercial  has  a  paid-up 
capital  of  about  100,000  dollars.  At  Pasto  the  Banco 
del  Sur,  with  a  paid-up  capital  of  about  66,000  dollars, 
and  deposits  of  about  half  as  much,  has  managed  to 
pay  20  per  cent.  All  these  banks  are  doing  well,  few 
pay  less  than  10  per  cent.,  the  average  is  probably  over 
12  per  cent.,  in  spite  of  the  custom  of  paying  high  interest 
on  deposits  and  even  on  current  account.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  most  of  the  big  mercantile  houses 
both  at  the  seaports  and  in  the  interior,  do  a  certain 
amount  of  banking  business,  and  some  of  them  devote  a 
good  deal  of  attention  to  selling  exchanges,  discounting 
bills,  making  advances  on  bills  of  lading  and  at  the  same 
time  accepting  deposits.  Even  taking  this  into  account, 
however,  it  would  seem  that  Colombia  offers  a  good 
field  for  banking  enterprise,  especially  if  managed  on 
sound  but  not  too  conservative  lines. 

Law  57  of  1887  declares  that  in  order  to  found  a  new 
bank  it  is  necessary  to  obtain  the  sanction  of  the  Govern- 
ment (Art.  54).  Such  banks  may  fix  their  rate  of  discount, 
interest  and  commission,  making  these  known  by  the 
issue  of  printed  notices.  Variations  may  be  made  by 
further  printed  notices  after  expiry  of  ninety  days  from 
every  such  notice  issued.  Private  banks  may  lend  money 
on  land.  By  authority  of  17  Act  120  of  the  Constitution, 
the  President  may  "  exercise  the  right  of  necessary 
inspection  over  banks  of  issue  and  other  establishments 
of  credit,  in  conformity  with  the  laws." 


CHAPTER  VIII 

social  conditions 

Cost  of  Living,  Travelling,  Position  of 
Foreigners,  Commercial  Laws 

From  the  point  of  view  of  social  conditions,  Colombia 
offers  to  the  observant  traveller  most  vivid  contrasts. 
In  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  in  Medellin,  in  Barran- 
quilla,  Cartagena,  Popayan  and  even  in  such  small 
towns  as  Rionegro  (Antioquia),  the  habits  and  methods 
of  life  of  the  inhabitants  possess  all  the  refinements 
found  in  European  centres,  having  due  regard,  of  course, 
to  the  limitations  of  any  special  locality  and  the  wealth 
of  individual  members  and  of  a  community  collectively. 
Bogota,  as  becomes  the  capital,  is  an  eminently  social 
and  hospitable  city,  offering  to  visitors  all  kinds  of  attrac- 
tions and  ways  of  agreeably  passing  the  time.  The  clubs, 
of  which  the  two  leading  examples  are  the  Jockey  Club 
and  the  Gun  Club,  give  periodical  dances,  celebrated 
for  the  sumptuous  setting  and  elegance  which  characterise 
them.  Private  individuals  receive  their  guests  either  in 
splendid  salons  or  modest  drawing-rooms,  but  always 
with  the  utmost  urbanity.  From  the  early  Colonial 
days,  the  Bogotanos  have  been  justly  noted  for  the 
suavity  and  nobility  of  their  manners. 

Foreigners,  who  in  other  capitals  of  the  South  American 
countries  find  difficulties  in  forming  relations  in  good 
society,  experience  no  obstacles  in  Bogota  if  provided 
with    adequate    introductions.     Local    society    is    very 

59 


60  COLOMBIA 

accessible,  frank  and  hospitable.  The  clubs  have  special 
regulations  to  facilitate  the  admission  of  foreigners, 
who,  as  temporary  members,  rind  every  convenience 
granted  to  them. 

It  is  difficult  to  classify  the  hotels  of  Bogota,  though 
there  are  those  that  are  good,  those  that  are  fairly  good, 
and  those  certainly  not  worthy  of  recommendation. 
Nor  is  price  the  best  indication.  Strangers  to  the  City 
would  do  well  to  make  cautious  enquiries  before  finally 
electing  to  take  up  their  abodes.  The  houses  are  usually 
well  built  and  often  most  comfortably  equipped.  But 
the  old  Spanish  type  with  open  patios  are  the  rule,  which 
is  perhaps  not  the  best  method  of  planning  for  so  high  a 
situation.  But  Bogota,  though  some  8,000  ft.  above 
sea-level,  does  not  strike  one  as  a  cold  city,  indeed  the 
temperature  ranges  between  58°  and  60°  F.  ;  while 
there  is  the  advantage  of  having  close  at  hand,  by  means 
of  a  four  or  five  hours  railway  journey,  a  district  basking 
in  a  tropical  temperature,  somewhere  about  86°  F. 
This  makes  it  easy  to  procure  all  the  produce  from 
both  temperate  and  tropical  zones.  In  the  markets  are 
all  the  garden  produce  and  vegetables,  potatoes,  peas, 
wheat,  and  European  fruit  such  as  strawberries,  apples, 
pears,  peaches  fresh  and  wholesome,  side  by  side  with 
pineapples,  aligator-pears,  bananas,  chirimoya  (Anona 
Humboldtiana)  the  produce  of  a  tropical  region.  On  the 
sabana  surrounding  the  city,  cattle  of  excellent  quality 
are  raised  in  abundance.  Beef,  mutton  and  pork  can  be 
obtained  at  the  same  price  as  in  Europe,  or,  indeed,  at 
rather  cheaper  rates.  For  this  reason  strangers  who 
propose  to  make  a  lengthy  stay  in  Bogota,  or  who  come 


SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  61 

with  their  families,  are  well  advised  in  hiring  their  private 
houses,  rather  than  patronising  hotels. 

Cost  of  Living. — Tariffs  in  the  dearest  hotels  vary 
from  12s.  to  15s.  per  day.  In  other  establishments  it 
is  possible  to  secure  temporary  lodgings  with  meals  at 
much  lower  prices.  However,  owing  to  many  difficulties, 
living  in  Bogota  cannot  be  said  to  be  cheap.  Though 
compared  with  such  places  as  Rio  de  Janeiro  or  Buenos 
Aires,  it  is  undeniably  low  ;  but  the  special  conditions 
created  by  the  monetary  system,  the  high  Customs 
tariffs  and  the  difficulties  of  transport  have  combined  to 
produce  a  disproportionate  rise  in  the  cost  of  comfortable 
and  easy  living. 

Rent  of  houses  and  land  has  no  relation  to  the  cost 
of  other  necessaries.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  constant 
variations  in  the  exchange  value  of  paper  money  and 
partly  to  the  scarcity  of  a  circulating  medium.  The  unit 
of  exchange  in  Colombia  is  the  paper  peso,  or  dollar, 
equivalent  to  4s.  of  English  money.  It  has  been  legally 
fixed  that  five  Colombian  pesos  are  equal  to  £1  sterling. 
As  a  result  of  this,  and  moreover  owing  to  the  last  three 
prosperous  years,  English  gold  coins  and  Bank  of  England 
notes,  have  entered  largely  into  the  local  circulation. 
So  that  visitors  who  have  provided  themselves  with 
English  gold  will  find  no  difficulty  in  the  matter  of 
exchange. 

Travelling. — To  reach  the  capital  from  Europe 
the  most  natural  access  is  by  way  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 
There  are  three  ports  of  entry,  which  we  shall  name  in 
the  order  of  their  commercial  importance  :  Barranquilla, 
which  is  united  by  rail  to  its  place  of  disembarcation, 


62  COLOMBIA 

Puerto  Colombia  ;  Cartagena,  whose  bay  is  accessible 
to  the  largest  steamships  ;  and  Santa  Marta.  From 
Barranquilla  the  interior  of  the  Republic  as  far  as  La 
Dorada  is  entered  by  way  of  the  Magdalena  river,  a 
journey  of  seven  to  eight  days.  At  La  Dorada  passengers 
take  the  train  on  the  Dorada  Railway  to  Beltran  or 
Ambalema,  where  they  once  more  join  the  Magdalena, 
taking  smaller  steamers  as  far  as  Girardot.  Owing 
to  the  stay  of  one  night  at  Honda  made  by  all  trains,  the 
run  from  La  Dorada  to  Ambalema,  which  by  direct 
route  could  be  made  in  three  or  four  hours,  entails  a 
twenty  hours'  journey.  At  Girardot,  which  is  reached  in 
another  sixteen  to  twenty  hours  from  Ambalema  or 
Beltran,  travellers  enter  trains  on  another  railway, 
which  transport  them  to  Bogota  in  from  eight  to  ten  hours. 
The  cost  of  this  journey,  from  the  coast  to  the  capital, 
apart  from  expense  of  luggage  transport  and  hotel  charges 
is  between  £12  and  £14  for  each  person. 

Barranquilla,  which  is  well  worth  knowing,  is  pro- 
gressing rapidly,  and  is  an  important  social  centre. 
There  are  two  clubs  :  the  Club  Barranquilla  and  the 
German  Club.  There  are  several  hotels.  In  the  most 
expensive  the  tariff  is  about  12s.  per  day.  The  town, 
apart  from  its  rather  high  temperature  and  inadequate 
sewerage,  may  be  considered  fairly  healthy.  It  is  the 
port  through  which  the  greater  part  of  the  export  and 
import  trade  of  the  country  passes. 

Cartagena,  an  ancient  town,  surrounded  by  the  sub- 
stantial Spanish  walls,  is  also  a  great  social  centre,  society 
being  very  distinguished  and  somewhat  ceremonious. 
Travellers  desiring  to  reach  the  capital  from  this  port, 


A  Modern  Private  House,  Medellin 


SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  63 

take  train  to  Calamar,  on  the  banks  of  the  Magdalena, 
there  to  join  the  steamers  from  Barranquilla.  Living  is 
about  as  costly  as  it  is  at  Barranquilla. 

Santa  Marta,  which  is  also  a  very  old  Spanish  town, 
has  prospered  greatly  of  late,  being  favoured  by  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  banana  trade  here  and  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood. In  order  to  reach  the  interior  from  this  port, 
it  is  necessary  to  go  to  Barranquilla,  preferably  by  the 
Santa  Marta  Railway,  which  unites  the  plains  with  the 
Magdalena,  and  then  by  ferry  across  the  river. 

In  order  to  reach  Medellin  travellers  ascend  the  Mag- 
dalena as  far  as  Puerto  Berrio,  thence  there  is  a  railway 
which  leads  into  the  interior  of  the  Department  of 
Antioquia.  This  railway  is  not  yet  completed,  and  part 
of  the  journey  has  to  be  made  by  means  of  coaches  and 
motor-cars. 

Position  of  Foreigners. — The  laws  of  the  country 
do  not  place  foreigners  under  special  disadvantages. 
They  are  assured  of  ample  protection,  both  as  regards 
personal  liberty  and  property,  and  in  time  of  war  then- 
condition  is  even  better  than  that  of  Colombians. 

It  is  advisable  for  foreigners  to  provide  themselves 
with  passports,  because  of  the  laws  relating  to  anarchist 
propaganda.  Nevertheless,  in  the  interior  foreigners 
run  no  risk  of  being  incommoded  by  the  authorities. 
The  highways  are  safe,  and  there  are  no  records  of  any 
foreigners  having  received  personal  injury  while  travelling. 

As  has  been  explained  in  another  chapter,  commercial 
travellers  may  bring  in  samples  for  exhibition  without 
paying  duty,  by  undertaking  to  re-export  them  at  the 
expiring  of  a  given  date,  and  to  pay  duty  on  any  goods 


64  COLOMBIA 

not  so  re-exported.  However,  certain  districts,  such  as 
Manizales,  Cartagena,  Cali,  and  others  impose  a  tax  on 
commercial  travellers  showing  samples. 

Education. — The  people  of  Colombia  have  always 
distinguished  themselves  by  a  love  of  study.  It  has 
frequently  been  made  a  subject  of  reproach  that  the 
interest  shown  in  assimilating  general  ideas  incapacitates 
them  from  appreciating  details  and  coldly  registering 
accomplished  facts.  Yet  the  interest  taken  in  the  study 
of  science  has  always  corresponded  with  those  periods 
of  enthusiasm  manifested  at  certain  stages  of  their  his- 
tory for  various  experiments  in  education.  Even  in  the 
Colonial  days,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Church,  an 
Institute  of  Secondary  Education  had  been  founded  in 
Bogota.  From  that  period  (1652)  dates  the  Colegio  del 
Rosario,  also  an  institution  of  secondary  instruction, 
which  has  had  extraordinary  success,  and  through  which 
some  of  those  Colombians  most  famous  in  science,  in 
literature  and  in  politics  have  passed.  This  College  is 
still  in  existence  and  flourishing,  giving  courses  in 
literature  and  philosophy.  The  National  University 
of  Bogota,  founded  in  1867,  has  Faculties  of  Medicine, 
Law  and  Political  Science,  and  to  this  institution  are 
associated  the  Schools  of  Engineering  and  of  National 
Sciences.  The  National  Library,  Astronomical  Ob- 
servatory, School  of  Fine  Arts  and  the  Academy  of  Music 
are  also  incorporated  in  the  University.  There  is  also 
in  the  capital  a  Seminary  in  which  youths  destined  for 
the  priesthood  are  educated.  The  Colegio  de  San 
Bartolom6,  of  ancient  foundation,  to-day  under  the 
direction  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  imparts   instruction    to 


SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  65 

young  boys.  A  free  Institute  of  learning,  enjoying  a 
good  name  in  the  country,  and  in  which  courses  of 
Literature  and  Philosophy  are  held,  and  comprising 
Faculties  of  Law  and  Political  Science,  is  the  Universidad 
Republicana,  which  has  withstood  the  assaults  of  political 
enemies,  and  throughout  a  difficult  period  has  kept  pace 
with  the  official  seat  of  learning. 

Elementary  instruction,  which  attained  a  most 
flourishing  stage  between  1870  and  1880,  as  the  result 
of  the  Government  establishing  Normal  Schools  with 
German  Professors  in  the  capitals  of  all  States,  gradually 
fell  into  evil  days  from  1886,  owing  to  the  precarious 
condition  created  by  the  war  and  the  frequent  changes 
of  Government.  Though  the  result  of  this  inaction  was 
long  felt,  it  has  been  succeeded  by  a  new  impulse  in 
favour  of  primary  education.  In  certain  departments, 
as  in  Antioquia  and  Caldas,  Bolivar  and  Cauca,  the 
Government's  action  in  favour  of  elementary  instruction 
is  effectively  seconded  by  the  initiative  of  parents.  In 
other  regions,  as  in  certain  provinces  of  Cundinamarca 
and  Boyaca,  the  average  attendance  at  school  is  far 
below  what  might  be  expected  from  the  census  returns. 
The  good  intentions  of  the  present  Government  have 
been  nullified  on  the  Constitutional  law  that  education 
shall  be  free  but  not  compulsory. 

Besides  the  higher  educational  institutions  in  the 
capital  of  the  Republic,  there  are  Universities  at  Medellin, 
with  Faculties  of  Medicine  and  law ;  at  Cartagena, 
and  at  Popayan.  The  School  of  Mines  at  Medellin  forms 
part  of  National  University. 

Literature. — Colombian  literature  already  possesses 


66  COLOMBIA 

a  history,  and  may  justly  pride  itself  on  names  which 
are  not  only  known  all  over  the  Continent,  but  even  in 
Europe.  The  Spanish  language  in  the  Republic  is  the 
object  of  zealous  study  and  the  best  Colombian  writers 
serve  as  examples  to  other  nations  of  the  Continent.  As 
the  result  of  the  natural  inclination  to  letters,  and  owing 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  country  as  a  whole  there  is  no 
considerable  immigration,  the  Spanish  language  has 
preserved  its  purity  better  than  in  other  nations. 

The  Press. — The  daily  Press  affords  ample  testimony 
to  the  fact  that  Colombians  are  tenacious  in  their  deter- 
mination to  keep  their  language  free  from  foreign  influ- 
ences. The  Press  had  a  precarious  life  owing  to  the 
rude  political  shocks  before  1902.  Few  of  the  daily  papers 
were  able  to  survive  the  violent  political  crises.  Never- 
theless, the  period  of  peace  inaugurated  by  President 
Reyes  has  been  favourable  to  the  development  of 
periodical  publications  in  Colombia.  There  are  now 
some  dailies  which  appear  definitely  to  constitute  a 
prosperous  Press,  and  certain  of  these  manifestly  have 
great  influence  in  political  life.  In  Bogota  the  oldest 
paper  is  El  Nuevo  Tiempo,  and  the  one  with  the  best 
news  service  is  La  Gaceta  Republicano.  Other  prosperous 
journals  are  El  Republicano  and  El  Tiempo.  In  Carta- 
gena El  Porvenir  is  published  ;  it  is  one  of  the  oldest 
dailies  in  Colombia.  In  Barranquilla  there  are  El 
Rigolleto,  El  Comercio  and  El  Liberal.  In  Medellin  La 
Prensa  and  the  Espectador. 

In  Colombia  the  Press  is  absolutely  free.  Such  laws 
as  relate  to  the  subject  are  scarcely  in  force,  because 
the  traditions  of  the  Press  have  supplanted  them.     The 


SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  67 

dailies  treat  all  questions  relating  to  the  Administration, 
to  religious  ideas,  to  habits  and  customs  of  the  people, 
with  absolute  liberty,  and  on  occasions  even  bold  effrontery. 
Nevertheless  such  independence  and  liberty  of  criticism 
is  not  aimless.  Each  paper  has  its  policy,  but  it  is  a  good 
sign  that  often  such  policy  is  subordinated  to  the 
criticism  of  facts  or  the  examination  of  opposing  ideas. 

Commercial  Laws. — According  to  the  Colombian 
Constitution  anybody  in  the  enjoyment  of  civil  rights, 
whether  native  born,  naturalised  or  foreigners  can  take 
proceedings  against  another  person  in  the  civil  courts, 
either  personally  or  by  attorney.  A  defendant  may 
demand  that  a  plaintiff  shall  provide  a  fitting  guarantor 
for  any  costs  that  the  plaintiff  may  be  ordered  to  pay, 
but  in  place  of  a  guarantor  the  plaintiff  can  pay  into 
court  such  sum  as  the  Judge  may  appoint.  If  this  is 
done,  the  plaintiff  may  demand  a  similar  guarantee  or 
deposit  from  the  defendant.  Costs  include  postages  ; 
Government  stamped  paper  used  for  claims,  evidence, 
etc.  ;  fees  of  witnesses  and  experts  ;  other  expenses 
incurred  in  the  suit ;  legal  charges  of  attorney  or 
advocate. 

By  Articles  307  and  322  of  Law  105  of  1890,  parties 
may,  even  after  proceedings  at  law  have  been  commenced, 
refer  the  matters  in  dispute  to  arbitration.  If  this  is 
agreed  to  the  parties  must  execute  a  deed,  on  stamped 
paper,  bearing  the  signature  of  two  witnesses,  setting 
forth:  (1)  The  subject  of  dispute  to  be  submitted  to 
arbitration.  (2)  Names  and  descriptions  of  three 
arbitrators.  (3)  The  nature  of  the  award  that  the 
arbitrators    are   to   direct,    setting    forth   whether    the 


68  COLOMBIA 

arbitrators  must  condemn  or  acquit  the  parties,  or 
whether  they  may  impose  a  compromise.  The  omission 
of  any  of  these  essentials  renders  the  document  null 
and  void.  The  award  is  treated  as  the  decision  of  a 
Judge,  and  is  therefore  subject  to  appeal  under  given 
conditions. 

The  Commercial  Code  (Law  57  of  1887)  declares  that 
"  every  person  who  according  to  the  common  laws  is 
held  capable  to  contract  and  bind  himself  is  held  equally 
capable  to  carry  on  trade"  (Clause  11).  Minors  may 
under  certain  circumstances  carry  on  trade  (Clause  15), 
but  bankrupts  cannot  until  they  have  obtained  their 
discharge  (Clause  16).  Every  trader  must  (a)  declare 
to  his  creditors  the  winding-up  of  every  partnership, 
whether  legally  constituted  or  depending  merely  upon 
agreement,  in  which  they  can  intervene  as  parties  ;  (6) 
maintain  a  uniform  and  accurate  system  of  accounts  ; 
(c)  preserve  all  correspondence  having  reference  to  his 
business  (Clause  24).  Every  wholesale  trader  must  keep 
a  (a)  daybook  ;  (b)  ledger  of  current  accounts  ;  (c)  register 
of  assets  and  liabilities  and  balance  sheet  ;  (d)  copying 
letter  book  (Clause  27).  And  every  retail  trader  must 
keep  a  record  of  daily  operations  and  a  list  of  assets  and 
liabilities,  together  with  balance  sheet,  prepared  at  least 
every  two  years  (Clause  28).  Other  books  and  records 
are  optional.  Special  rules  are  laid  down  regarding  the 
description  of  these  books  and  of  the  entries  to  be  made. 
No  erasures  or  alterations  must  be  made,  all  rectifications 
being  made  by  separate  entries  (Clauses  37  and  38). 
Merchants  must  preserve  the  books  and  papers  of  their 
business   until   the   termination   at   every  point   of   the 


SOCIAL   CONDITIONS  69 

winding-up  of  their  business  transactions.  The  same 
obligation  rests  upon  their  heirs. 

Brokers  are  persons  capable  of  trading,  but  electing 
to  act  as  brokers  or  agents,  and  having  their  names 
and  addresses  entered  on  a  Register.  They  must  observe 
secrecy  ;  cannot  employ  assistants,  and  must  not  trade, 
directly  or  indirectly,  in  those  matters  in  which  they 
usually  deal ;  they  may  not  acquire  goods  entrusted  to 
themselves,  or  to  other  brokers,  for  sale  (Clauses  65-91). 

The  civil  law  recognises  five  classes  of  bankruptcy  : 
(a)  suspension  of  payment,  (b)  accidental  insolvency, 
(c)  culpable  bankruptcy,  (d)  fraudulent  bankruptcy, 
(e)  absconding  (Clause  122).  Fraudulent  bankruptcy  is 
assumed  when  a  bankrupt  has  failed  to  keep  the  prescribed 
books,  or  books  in  the  prescribed  manner,  or  when  he 
fails  to  answer  the  summons  of  a  Judge  (Clause  128). 
The  execution  of  deeds  of  assignment  of  property  of 
traders  is  regarded  as  an  act  of  bankruptcy  (Clause  134). 
The  regulations  as  to  obtaining  discharges  are  very 
stringent  (Clauses  174-181). 

Ordinary  binding  contracts  may  be  made  by  word 
of  mouth,  by  public  or  private  written  document,  or 
through  an  authorised  agent  (Clause  183).  An  oral  offer 
must  be  accepted  at  once,  and  a  written  offer  within 
twenty-four  hours  by  a  person  residing  in  the  place 
where  the  offer  is  made,  or  by  return  of  post  by  others  ; 
otherwise  the  offers  are  void,  but  if  a  later  acceptance 
is  made,  any  retraction  of  the  offer  must  be  made  by 
return  of  post  to  avoid  liability  to  an  action  for  loss  and 
damages  (Clauses  184-185).  Every  trader  can  charge 
interest  for  deliveries  made  on  credit,  one  month  after 

6— (2248) 


70  COLOMBIA 

rendering  an  account,  if  the  time  of  payment  has  not  been 
specified,  even  though  the  debtor  is  not  a  trader  (Clause 
212).  A  seller  must  deliver  the  goods  sold  in  the  time 
and  at  the  place  agreed  upon,  but  if  no  time  has  been 
fixed,  then  the  seller  must  have  the  things  sold  ready  for 
the  buyer  within  twenty-four  hours  following  the  com- 
pletion of  the  contract.  If  no  place  has  been  named, 
delivery  shall  be  made  in  the  place  where  the  goods 
existed  at  the  time  of  the  sale  (Clause  134). 

Three  kinds  of  commercial  agency  are  recognised  : 
(a)  the  Comision  (relating  to  specific  mercantile  trans- 
actions) ;  (b)  Preposition  (when  an  agent  is  placed  in  the 
position  of  a  manager) ;  (c)  Correduria  y  agenda  de 
cambio  (brokerage)  (Clauses  331-462). 

The  law  recognises  four  forms  of  commercial  associa- 
tions :  (a)  full  partnership  ;  (b)  joint-stock  companies  ; 
(c)  limited  partnership  ;    (d)  joint  adventure. 

A  partnership  is  made  between  persons  capable  of 
trading  by  a  written  document  made  public  and 
registered.  This  document  must  contain  (a)  the  names 
and  addresses  of  both  parties  ;  (b)  partnership  style  ; 
(c)  names  of  partners  charged  with  management  and 
right  of  signing  ;  (d)  the  capital  introduced  by  each 
partner  ;  (e)  the  scope  of  the  partnership  ;  (/)  the  share 
of  profits  or  losses  assigned  to  each  partner  ;  (g)  time 
limit ;  (h)  permissible  annual  drawings  of  each  partner  ; 
(*)  particulars  as  to  division  on  winding-up  ;  (/)  arbitra- 
tion provisions,  if  any  ;  (k)  registered  address  of  the 
concern  ;    (/)  any  other  binding  terms  (Clauses  464-549). 

A  joint-stock  company  may  sue  and  be  sued.  The 
liability  of  the  members  is  limited  to  the  amount  of  their 


SOCIAL   CONDITIONS  71 

subscription  (Clause  550).  But  an  ordinary  joint-stock 
company  can  only  exist  by  complying  with  such  regu- 
lations as  apply  to  the  registration  of  partnerships 
(Clause  551),  and  those  projected  for  carrying  out  under- 
takings of  public  concern  must  be  authorised  by  special 
law  (Clause  553).  All  joint-stock  companies  must  specify 
the  time  of  their  duration,  unless  such  time  limit  is 
implicit  in  their  deed  of  incorporation  (Clause  446). 
Article  14  of  the  Constitution  declares  that  companies 
constituted  abroad  "  which  are  recognised  in  Colombia 
as  juridical  personalities,  will  not  have  rights  other  than 
those  which  appertain  to  Colombian  persons."  By 
Legislative  Decrees  Nos.  2  and  37  of  1906,  foreign  joint- 
stock  companies  desiring  to  have  permanent  establishments 
in  Colombia  must  record  in  the  National  Registry  of  the 
district  in  which  their  chief  place  of  business  is  situated, 
a  copy  of  their  Act  of  Incorporation,  copies  of  their 
Articles  of  Association,  and  evidence  of  their  registration 
and  permission  to  trade  in  their  own  country.  Such 
companies  must  have  a  fully  authorised  local  resident 
agent.     They  are  not  subject  to  any  special  tax. 

Limited  partnership  (sociadad  en  comandita)  are  of 
two  kinds  :  (a)  Simple  limited  partnerships  with  a 
capital  fund  supplied  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  limited 
partners  and  the  working  partners  ;  (b)  Limited  partner- 
ship by  shares,  whose  capital  is  contributed  by  shares 
subscribed  by  members  whose  names  do  not  appear 
in  the  partnership  instrument  (Clause  597).  Both  clauses 
are  subject  to  ordinary  partnership  law,  but  the  limited 
partners  (whose  names  may  be  omitted  from  the  partner- 
ship  instrument   and   need   not    appear   in   the   official 


72  COLOMBIA 

abstract)  are  liable  only  to  the  extent  of  the  capital  they 
have  invested  (Clause  599). 

A  joint  adventure  {participation)  "  is  a  contract  by 
which  two  or  more  traders  take  an  interest  in  one  or 
several  mercantile  ventures,  contemporaneous  or  in 
succession,  which  must  be  carried  out  by  one  of  them 
in  his  own  name  alone,  and  under  his  personal  credit, 
with  the  obligation  of  rendering  an  account,  and  of 
dividing  with  his  co-adventurers  the  gains  or  losses,  in 
agreed  proportion  "  (Clause  629).  The  Supreme  Court 
has  held  that  only  traders  may  be  joint-adventurers. 

Patents. — According  to  Decree  No.  909  of  1906  on 
Stamped  Paper  and  National  Stamp-Duty,  patents  of 
privilege  must  pay  annually  ten  pesos  gold  on  each 
invention. 

Trade  Marks.— By  Decree  No.  217  of  1900  it  is 
enacted  that  any  citizen,  whether  Colombian  or  foreigner, 
who  is  the  proprietor  of  a  Trade  or  Commercial  Mark, 
may  acquire  the  exclusive  right  to  its  use  by  Registration. 
The  applicant,  personally  or  by  attorney,  must  appear 
at  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works  with  a  request  for 
Registration,  setting  forth  the  distinctive  sign  which 
constitutes  the  mark,  the  article  to  which  it  refers,  and  the 
place  of  manufacture  or  production.  This  request  must 
be  made  on  stamped  paper  of  the  third  class,  and  be 
accompanied  by  two  copies  (drawings  or  prints)  of  the 
mark,  each  bearing  a  stamp  of  the  first  class.  The 
application  is  published  in  the  official  Gazette  at  the  cost 
of  the  applicant,  and  if  thirty  days  thereafter,  if  a  Trade 
Mark,  or  sixty  if  a  Commercial  Mark,  there  should  be 
no  opposition,  it  is  registered.     A  Trade  Mark  (Marca 


SOCIAL   CONDITIONS  73 

de  Fabrica)  is  defined  as  "  any  phrase  or  sign  employed  in 
order  to  distinguish  or  define  a  particular  product  in- 
tended for  trade  or  commerce."  A  Commercial  Mark 
(Marca  de  Comercio)  is  defined  as  a  "  phrase  or  sign 
distinctive  of  an  article  of  commerce  intended  to  be 
associated  with  a  particular  commercial  person  or  trading 
house."  By  Decree  No.  217  of  1900,  the  dues  payable 
on  both  classes  of  Mark  are  ten  pesos  gold. 


CHAPTER  IX 

INLAND   COMMUNICATION   AND   TRANSPORT 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  of  Colombia,  if  not  indeed  the 
greatest  of  all,  is  the  provision  of  facilities  for  inland 
traffic.  Not  only  is  a  large  part  of  the  country  still 
practically  unexplored,  but  even  districts  which  are 
comparatively  densely  populated  are  often  left  in  strange 
isolation  owing  to  the  lack  of  railroads  and  highways. 
It  is  this  fact  that  makes  travelling  in  the  Republic 
slow  and  costly,  and  the  transport  of  goods  a  matter  of 
serious  concern.  No  doubt  the  configuration  of  this  very 
mountainous  country  with  its  deep  valleys  and  rolling 
llanos,  explains  much  of  the  present  condition  of  affairs, 
because  the  engineering  and  financial  problems  to  be 
overcome  are  considerable.  Nevertheless  it  will  be 
found,  especially  when  the  railroads  and  highways  of  the 
country  are  being  examined,  that  past  political  history 
has  had  much  to  do  with  both  the  deeds  of  commission 
and  omission  ;  with  the  new  era,  therefore,  we  may 
justly  look  for  greater  wisdom  and  swifter  progress. 

We  have  already  dealt  with  certain  provisions  for 
inland  navigation,  and  meagre  though  these  be,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  river  system  plays  an  almost  pre- 
dominant part  in  traffic  possibilities  when  the  country  is 
viewed  as  a  whole. 

In  regard  to  river  traffic' the  Magdalena  stands  pre- 
eminent. In  its  course  of  about  1,060  miles  (of  which 
930  are  navigable),  it  traverses  nearly  three-fourths  of 

74 


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</) 


*0 


ns 


COMMUNICATION   AND   TRANSPORT      75 

the  central  part  of  the  Republic,  and  by  means  of  its 
tributaries  taps  many  of  the  most  thickly  populated 
of  the  agricultural  and  industrial  regions.  Unfortunately, 
although  the  fourth  largest  river  in  South  America,  it 
partakes  for  long  stretches  the  character  of  a  mountain 
stream.  Broadly  speaking,  the  river  is  navigable  for 
large  steamers  from  the  Atlantic  almost  up  to  Honda, 
a  distance  of  about  1,000  kilometres  ;  for  small  steamers 
from  above  Honda  to  Neiva  ;  for  boats  and  rafts  up 
to  the  confluence  of  the  Paez.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  there  are  numerous  obstacles  to  be  met  with. 
Much  dredging  and  rectification  of  banks  are  required 
in  the  lower  reaches  before  large  steamers  can  enjoy  a 
free  and  easy  course  all  the  year  round.  Real  difficulties 
begin  at  Honda,  just  above  which  are  the  celebrated 
Fall  and  Rapids  of  that  name.  These  cause  most  of 
the  steamers  to  anchor  a  short  distance  below  the  port. 
For  up-country  traffic  this  stoppage  generally  takes 
place  at  La  Dorada,  where  there  is  a  short  railway  running 
to  Honda  and  then  on  to  Ambalema.  By  using  this 
railway  passengers  avoid  the  Falls  of  Honda  and  the 
narrow  straits  of  Colombaima,  where  the  river  races 
between  high  rocky  cliffs.  At  Ambalema  passengers 
and  goods  once  more  join  the  river,  a  short  distance  by 
small  steamer  being  traversed  before  reaching  Girardot, 
where  the  railway  to  Bogota  begins.  The  steamers 
continue  up  to  Neiva,  and  then  further  progress  must 
be  made  by  canoes,  or  the  peculiar  raft-boats  known  as 
Champans.  On  the  banks  of  the  Magdalena  are  numerous 
ports,  some  little  more  than  wharfs  and  warehouses. 
The  river  has  also  many  tributaries.     Soon  after  leaving 


76  COLOMBIA 

Barranquilla  on  the  south  bank  is  Calamar,  the  river 
port  and  railhead  of  the  Cartagena  railway.  Just  above, 
on  the  north  bank,  is  Heredia,  an  important  collecting 
depot  of  the  rich  agricultural  Magdalena  plains.  Higher 
up,  on  the  south  bank,  is  the  mouth  of  the  Cauca.  A 
regular  service  of  steamers  ply  up  the  river  from  Barran- 
J  quilla  to  Valdivia  ;  also  up  a  tributary  of  the  Cauca,  the 
Nechi,  as  far  as  Zaragoza.  The  Cauca  is  used  on  many 
of  its  stretches  by  both  steamers  and  rafts,  assisting  in 
traffic  between  such  towns  as  Cali  and  Cartago,  but  the 
bed  is  in  many  parts  impassable  owing  to  falls  and  rocks. 
Returning  to  the  Magdalena  we  find  on  its  north  bank 
the  river  Cesar,  which  affords  a  waterway  through  fertile 
regions  to  the  Valle  Dupar  and  the  Goajira  Peninsula. 
Here  is  also  the  mouth  of  the  partly  navigable  Lebrija, 
which  runs  south-east,  steamers  going  as  far  as  Estacion 
Santander,  champans  continuing  the  voyage  to  Puerto 
Santos,  where  the  pack-mule  trail  commences.  Other 
tributaries  useful  as  collecting  and  distributing  channels 
are  the  Opon  and  Carare,  opening  up  the  country  of 
Santander ;  the  Sogamoso,  tapping  Santander  and 
Boyaca  and  the  Nare,  traversing  part  of  Antioquia.  To 
return  once  more  to  the  main  stream  of  the  Magdalena, 
Jesus  del  Rio  and  Zambrano  are  important  as  the  coffee 
and  tobacco  depots  of  Bolivar  ;  Magangue"  is  the  gateway 
to  the  cattle-raising  plains  of  Corozal.  From  Puerto 
Wilches  a  railway  is  under  construction  to  Bucaramanga, 
which  district  is  also  served  by  La  Gloria,  Bodega  de 
Carmen,  and  Bodega  del  Sur.  From  Puerto  Berrio  a 
railway  runs  south-west  to  La  Quiebra  and  is  being 
continued  to  Medellin. 


COMMUNICATION  AND   TRANSPORT        77 

It  has  already  been  said  that  the  navigation  of  the 
Magdalena  is  by  no  means  easy,  this  is  due  to  sand- 
banks, rocks,  and  at  certain  seasons  lack  of  water. 
Consequently  the  service  is  apt  to  be  slow  and  somewhat 
irregular,  moreover,  it  is  extremely  expensive  owing  to  the 
frequent  transhipments.  In  his  report  to  the  Board  of 
Trade,  Mr.  G.  T.  Milne  says  :  "  With  a  view  to  improving 
conditions  a  canalisation  tax  is  imposed  on  both  exports 
and  imports,  the  product  being  applied  to  the  acquisition 
and  upkeep  of  dredges."  The  work  is  carried  out  under 
the  direction  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Works  and  a 
Canalisation  Board.  According  to  a  recent  decree  the 
tax  is  as  follows —  _  ..      „  ,, 

Dollars  Gold 
per  ton. 
On  imports  of  general  merchandise  . .  .  .      4.5 

On    national  manufactures  for  consumption 

in  the  country  ..  ..  ..  ..      2.10 

On  national  manufactures  for  export — 
On  sawn  or  squared  timber,  sugar,  rubber, 

minerals,  hides,  coffee,  cocoa  and  salt  . .       1.60 
On  timber  in  logs,  and  fibres  . .  . .      0.60 

In  1912  this  tax  yielded  about  117,000  dollars  gold, 
on  an  import  cargo  of  44,500  tons  and  an  export  cargo 
of  53,300  tons.  Mr.  Milne  adds  :  "  While  the  Canalisation 
Board  probably  does  something  to  improve  navigation, 
to  deal  effectively  with  the  problem  (which  is  stated  to  be 
getting  more  serious  every  year  owing  to  the  diminished 
amount  of  water  in  the  rivers  through  deforestation) 
technical  advice  of  the  best  kind  available  would  be 
necessary,  with  presumably  the  expenditure  of  very 
large  sums  of  money.  At  present  canalisation  works 
on  an  extensive  scale  might  prove  to  be  beyond  the 
country's   resources,   although   a   loan,   secured   on   the 


78  COLOMBIA 

revenue  derived  from  the  tax  and  expended  by  responsible 
foreign  engineers  and  contractors,  might  greatly  improve 
existing  conditions.  The  first  essential  would  be  a 
thorough  investigation  of  the  problem  by  a  competent 
engineer.  If  his  report  should  be  favourable  to  expendi- 
ture a  loan  could  presumably  be  arranged  on  condition 
that  the  collection  of  the  tax  by  the  lending  house  was 
satisfactorily  provided  for.  In  the  event  of  the  necessary 
works  being  deemed  beyond  the  country's  resources,  the 
only  solution  of  the  difficulty  would  seem  to  be  for  the 
Government  to  assist  such  railway  enterprises  as  would 
tend  to  facilitate  communication  between  the  littoral 
and  the  interior.  Eventually  a  trunk  line,  linking  up 
existing  and  projected  railways,  may  cross  the  country 
from  ocean  to  ocean  ;  but  it  seems  improbable  that  a  work 
of  this  magnitude  will  be  undertaken  in  the  near  future." 
Before  discussing  this  and  other  aspects  of  the  railway 
problem  we  must  say  a  few  words  about  the  steamboat 
accommodation  in  the  Magdalena,  and  also  on  the  other 
navigable  waterway  systems  of  the  Republic.  That 
such  facilities  as  the  Magdalena  offers  should  largely 
monopolise  attention  is  explained  when  we  realise  that 
close  upon  80  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  imports,  and  over 
60  per  cent,  of  the  exports  pass  through  the  Customs 
of  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  and  as  only  a  small 
proportion  of  these  goods  remain  in  the  two  cities,  or 
are  distributed  in  their  neighbourhoods  by  rail  or  carts, 
or  transhipped  to  Santa  Marta,  it  is  clear  what  a  pre- 
ponderating part  this  river  plays  in  the  business  life  of 
the  country.  While  there  is  a  fair  amount  of  competition 
in  the  provision  of  steamboat  service,  the  two  leading 


COMMUNICATION  AND  TRANSPORT 


79 


organisations  are  a  local  company,  the  Empresa  Han- 
seatica,  and  an  English  company,  the  Empresa  Aliadas, 
both  of  which  are  managed  by  Colombian  firms.  The 
Hanseatica  has  a  fleet  of  seven  steamers  of  1,269  tons  in 
all,  and  the  Aliadas  twenty-nine  steamers  of  over  6,000 
tons.  These  steamers,  and  those  of  other  owners,  are 
flat-bottomed  stern-wheelers,  drawing  little  water  and 
designed  on  the  lines  of  the  American  river  steamboats. 
A  weekly  express  mail  service  to  Bogota,  and  inter- 
mediate services,  are  run  by  the  Aliadas  for  a  monthly 
Government  subsidy  of  £1,000.  Passenger  rates  and 
cargo  freights  are  on  a  tariff  approved  by  the  Government, 
rebates  being  allowed  on  certain  classes  of  goods.  Thus 
the  charge  for  carriage  of  general  merchandise  from 
Puerto  Colombia  to  La  Dorado,  thence  over  rail  to 
Arranca  Plumas,  then  by  river,  and  again  by  rail  to 
Bogota  is  about  £12  per  ton,  calculated  thus  in  gold 
dollars  per  ton — 


Railway  freight,  Puerto  Colombia  to  Barran- 

quilla 
River  freight,  Barranquilla  to  La  Dorado 
Sundry  charges  :    Manifest  and  Stamps 
Loading  river  steamer 
Canalisation  tax 
Customs  despatch 
Cartage 
Commission 
Through  freight,  La  Dorado-Bogota 


3.63 

14.0 

1.60 

.60 

2.0 

.20 

.10 

1.20 

35.35 

58.68 


The  through  rates  from  Cartagena  are  the  same.  It 
should  be  noted  that  there  is  a  rebate  of  25  per  cent,  on 
the  river  freights  for  agricultural  and  mining  machinery, 


80  COLOMBIA 

tools  and  wire  netting,  and  50  per  cent,  on  railway 
material. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  Cauca,  which 
taps  part  of  Bolivar,  Antioquia,  Caldas,  El  Valle  and 
Cauca.  It  is  navigable  from  the  Magdalena,  near 
Magangue,  to  Rio  Nuevo  ;  but  thence  to  the  city  of 
Antioquia  the  river  is  impassable.  Above  that  there  is  a 
considerable  reach  of  fair  waterway,  a  busy  traffic  being 
kept  up  from  a  little  above  Cali  and  rather  beyond 
Cartago.  The  Nechi  and  other  tributaries  bring  addi- 
tional traffic  to  this  river,  giving  access  to  districts  lying 
eastward. 

The  Sinu,  draining  the  low-lying  cattle  and  sugar 
plantation  lands  of  western  Bolivar,  is  open  to  steamers 
from  the  Gulf  of  Cispata  to  Monteria. 

Going  west,  there  is  the  Atrato,  falling  into  the  Gulf 
of  Darien  and  navigable  as  far  as  Quibdo.  Plans  have 
been  prepared  for  a  short  canal  from  Cupica  Bay,  by 
which  this  river  would  be  given  an  outlet  into  the  Pacific. 

While  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cordillera  and  wide 
valley  of  the  department  of  El  Valle  is  served  by  the 
Cauca,  the  western  slope  and  coastal  forest  regions  are 
served  by  the  San  Juan,  which  is  open  for  steamers 
from  Buenaventura  to  San  Pablo,  and  for  small  boats  to 
Dipurdu.  There  is  a  project  to  join  the  San  Juan  with 
the  Atrato  by  canalisation,  which  would  also  have  the 
effect  of  giving  direct  water  communication  between  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Pacific.  But  the  engineering  diffi- 
culties are  very  considerable  and  the  probable  cost, 
in  view  of  the  class  of  possible  traffic,  appears  prohibitive. 

The  Pat i a  drains  the  south-western  border  of  Cauca 


COMMUNICATION  AND   TRANSPORT        81 

and  the  western  part  of  Narino,  flowing  into  the  Pacific 
not  far  from  the  Ecuadorian  frontier. 

On  the  eastern  side,  the  Meta  rising  in  the  Cerro  del 
Nevado  (where  snow-capped  peaks,  14,140  ft.  above 
sea-level,  feed  enormous  glaciers),  lying  to  the  south-west 
of  Bogota,  skirts  the  foot-hills  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera, 
and,  flowing  through  the  great  territory  of  Meta  and  the 
southern  border  of  the  Comisaria  of  Arauca,  which  is 
tapped  by  tributaries,  joins  the  Orinoco  at  the  Venezuelan 
frontier,  and  affords  an  outlet  into  the  Atlantic  through 
Lake  Maracaibo. 

The  Guaviare  river  rises  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Cerro  del  Nevado,  and  just  below  Uribe  is  joined  by  the 
Ariari,  which  rises  in  the  foot-hills  of  the  Cordillera  de 
Sumapaz  and  passes  by  the  town  of  Arana.  The 
Guaviare  continuing  with  a  north-eastward  trend,  cuts 
the  Meta  territory  almost  in  two  and  flows  into  the 
Orinoco.  One  day  it  may  become  of  great  importance. 
The  Yupura,  which  flows  right  through  the  Caqueta 
territory,  tapping  it  right  and  left  by  means  of  many 
tributaries,  and  the  Putumayo,  south  of  the  Caqueta, 
both  of  which  flow  into  the  Marahon,  are  waterways 
whose  usefulness  are  bound  to  be  largely  developed  in  the 
near  future. 

Other  rivers  are  navigable,  though  they  are  generally 
tributaries  of  the  systems  already  mentioned.  Some 
particulars  of  these  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on 
Ports  and  Harbours. 

Railways. — For  the  moment  the  railways  of  Colombia 
present  an  extraordinary  absence  of  systematic  develop- 
ment.    There  are  fourteen  lines,  ranging  from  15  to  55 


82  COLOMBIA 

miles  in  length,  dotted  about  the  country,  few  having 
any  direct  connection  with  any  other.  This  seemingly 
haphazard  scattering  of  short  stretches  of  railways  in 
isolated  districts  is  to  a  considerable  extent  the  result 
of  the  old  Sovereign  State  regime,  when  there  were  seven 
or  eight  Governments  each  ambitious  to  enter  into  the 
civilised  world's  race  for  railway  construction,  but  without 
much  regard  to  what  their  neighbours  were  doing,  or 
to  the  needs  of  the  Confederation  as  a  whole. 

Two  of  the  obviously  necessary  lines  are  those  of  the 
Barranquilla  and  the  Cartagena  railways,  both  owned  by 
English  companies.  The  first  is  15  miles  long  and  links 
up  Puerto  Colombia  with  Barranquilla,  and  has  a  capital 
(in  shares  and  bonds)  of  £300,000.  The  second  runs 
between  Cartagena  and  Calamar  on  the  Magdalena,  a 
distance  of  65  miles ;  it  has  a  capital  of  £1,350,000. 
The  Barranquilla  railway  carries  four  times  as  many 
passengers  and  rather  over  twice  as  many  goods  as  the 
Cartagena  line.  Both  perform  a  useful  purpose,  yet  they 
entail  an  expensive  system  of  transhipment. 

Santa  Marta  Railway.  Santa  Marta,  whose  port  is 
regularly  visited  by  the  Elders-Fife  line  as  well  as  the 
ships  of  the  United  Fruit  Company  and  the  Hamburg 
American  line,  is  the  starting-point  of  a  railway,  owned  by 
the  English  Santa  Marta  Railway  Company,  Ltd.  (capital, 
shares  and  bonds,  £506,370),  which  runs  to  Cienega  on  the 
river  Fundacion.  It  has  72  miles  of  track,  and  is  more- 
over fed  by  about  10  miles  of  short  private  lines  serving 
banana  plantation  estates.  There  is  a  project  to  carry 
the  line  to  Banco  on  the  Magdalena,  near  to  its  confluence 
with  the  Cesar.  This  would  add  about  135  miles  to  the  line. 


COMMUNICATION   AND   TRANSPORT         83 

On  the  Pacific  coast  the  Cauca  railway,  which  was 
started  forty  years  ago  and  has  had  a  chequered  career, 
is  now  in  the  hands  of  a  local  company,  the  Compania  del 
Ferrocarril  del  Pacifico.  It  has  a  paid-up  share  capital 
of  854,000  dollars  gold,  and  a  bonded  debt  floated  in 
London  of  £119,200.  Its  line  runs  from  Buenaventura 
towards  Cali,  which  it  has  nearly  reached,  about  83  miles 
being  open  and  in  operation. 

Harking  back  to  the  Magdalena,  at  a  point  known  as 
Puerto  Wilches  we  find  the  Great  Central  Northern  Railway 
Company,  Ltd.  (an  English  concern  with  a  share  and 
bond  capital  of  £1,001,760  ;  the  Government  of  Colombia 
holding  £50,000  of  shares),  constructing  a  line  to  Bucar- 
amanga,  of  which  over  12  miles  are  completed.  This 
company  secured  the  right  to  prolong  its  line  from 
Bucaramanga,  so  as  to  form  a  junction  with  the 
Ferrocarril  del  Norte. 

Higher  up  the  river,  on  the  west  bank,  is  busy  Puerto 
Berrio,  where  commences  the  Antioquia  Railway  (which 
is  owned  by  the  department).  It  is  now  nearly  com- 
pleted as  far  as  Medellin,  a  distance  of  120  miles. 
Practically  an  extension  of  this  railway  is  being  run  from 
Medellin  through  Amaga  to  the  Cauca  river.  This 
extension  now  reaches  Caldas,  19  miles  distant,  and  still 
has  to  be  carried  another  23  miles.  Mr.  Milne  states  that 
freights  on  this  railway,  from  Puerto  Berrio  to  Cisneros 
(109  kiloms.)  are  20  cents  gold  on  general  merchandise, 
18  cents  on  cotton  yarn,  petroleum,  flour  and  salt,  and 
15  cents  on  machinery,  galvanised  iron,  wire  fencing 
and  steel,  all  per  ton-kilometre. 

Some  distance  farther  up  on  the  west  bank,  just  below 


84  COLOMBIA 

Honda,  commences  the  La  Dorada  Railway,  owned  by  the 
Dorada  Extension  Railway,  Ltd.,  with  a  capital  of 
£700,000.  As  elsewhere  already  explained,  three  of  its 
Stations,  La  Dorada,  Honda  and  Arranca  Plumas  are 
on  the  Magdalena,  and  there  is  an  extension  to  Ambalema. 
Its  chief  reason  for  existence  is  to  act  as  a  portage,  carrying 
all  passengers  and  goods  traffic  between  La  Dorada  and 
Ambalema,  thus  avoiding  the  impassable  rapids  about 
Honda.  It  also  receives  much  traffic  from  Manizales 
and  elsewhere,  which  comes  over  the  Quindio  pass  road. 
The  main,  or  river  skirting  line,  is  31  miles  long,  and  the 
extension  51. 

Still  higher  up,  at  Girardot,  commences  a  narrow 
gauge  railway,  owned  by  the  English  Colombian  National 
Railway  Company,  Ltd.  (capital  £900,000,  one-third 
owned  by  the  Government,  and  a  bonded  debt  of 
£1,480,000). 

The  82  miles  of  the  Colombiano  National  Railway 
end  at  Facatativa,  whence  another  railway  of  24  miles 
starts  for  Bogota  across  the  plateau.  It  carries  over 
70  per  cent,  of  traffic  to  and  from  the  Sabana  of  Bogota, 
though  up  to  1913  more  than  half  of  the  total  found 
its  way  down  to  the  valley  by  way  of  the  Honda  mule 
track  and  the  Camboa  cart  road.  Bogota  itself  is  the 
centre  of  four  railways  serving  the  Cundinamarca 
plateau.  Besides  the  Girardot  line  there  is  the  Sabana 
(practically  owned  by  the  Government),  which  has 
25  miles  out,  to  Facatativa.  The  Ferrocarril  del  Norte, 
owned  by  the  English  Colombian  Northern  Company, 
Ltd.  (capital,  shares  and  bonds,  £780,000)  has  a  29  mile 
line    to   Zipaquira.     It    has   made    over   its   concession 


53 


^ 


COMMUNICATION   AND  TRANSPORT         85 

for  the  construction  of  an  extension  from  its  terminus 
to  Chiquinquira,  where  it  would  connect  up  with  an 
extension  from  Bucaramanga,  to  the  Colombian  Central 
Railway  Company,  a  short  branch  (9  miles)  connecting 
Zipaquira  and  Nemocon.  The  Ferrocarril  del  Sur,  the 
property  of  the  Government,  runs  from  Bogota  to  Sibate, 
a  distance  of  19  miles.  It  is  proposed  ultimately  to  link 
up  Girardot  with  Ibague,  in  Tolima.  Work  has  already 
been  commenced  on  this  Tolima  Railway,  which  is  the 
property  of  the  Government,  from  the  Ibague  end,  about 
15  miles  being  in  working  order. 

North-east  of  Bucaramanga,  in  Norte  de  Santander, 
is  the  go-ahead  town  of  Cucuta.  In  1888  its  merchants, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Municipality  which  owns  a 
third  share,  constructed  a  railway  37  miles  long  to 
Puerto  Villamizar,  on  the  Zulia  river  ;  subsequently  an 
extension  of  10  miles  was  made  to  the  Venezuelan 
frontier,  joining  the  town  of  Chiguara. 

Such  is  the  railway  position  to-day.  The  Government 
is  credited  with  projects  to  link  up  these  various  isolated 
lines.  The  Buenaventura  line  to  Cali  would  be  carried 
north,  passing  through  various  towns,  to  join  the  Cauca- 
Medellin  line  and  so  through  to  Puerto  Berrio.  Thence  it 
would  turn  south  to  join  the  Dorada  line,  where  a  branch 
would  run  to  Tocaima  on  the  Girardot  line,  thus  linking 
up  with  Bogota.  From  Bogota  the  Norte  is  to  be  pro- 
longed to  Chiquinquira,  forming  a  conjunction  with  the 
Bucaramanga  line  to  Puerto  Wilches.  A  line  across  the 
Quindio  would  connect  Cartago  with  Girardot,  and  a 
branch  line  from  Medellin  would  run  to  the  Gulf  of 
Uraba.     A    branch    would    run-  from    Girardot    to    La 

7— (2248) 


86  COLOMBIA 

Plata,  while  the  Buenaventura  railway  would  be  run 
south  through  Popayan  and  Pasto  to  the  Ecuadorian 
frontier.  To  complete  the  network,  a  branch  would  be 
built  from  Bucaramanga  to  Cucuta.  Thus  only  the 
three  Atlantic  lines  would  be  left  unconnected. 

A  free  hand  has  been  reserved  by  the  Government  in 
the  matter  of  railway  construction.  A  law  passed  in 
1892  gives  power  to  the  Executive  to  grant  concessions 
without  reference  to  the  Legislature.  Subsidies  may  be 
granted  in  the  form  of  not  more  than  300  hectars  of  public 
lands,  plus  a  sum  not  exceeding  10,000  dollars  gold, 
payable  in  6  per  cent,  amortisable  bonds,  per  kilometre 
open  to  traffic  ;  or  a  guarantee  for  not  more  than  twenty 
years  of  interest  not  exceeding  7  per  cent,  on  capital 
actually  invested,  and  not  exceeding  30,000  dollars  gold 
per  kilometre  open  to  traffic.  This  guarantee  ceases  if  and 
when  the  railway  succeeds  earning  in  three  consecutive 
years  a  profit  sufficient  to  pay  the  guaranteed  interest. 
A  concession  may  be  given  for  as  long  as  100  years. 
As  a  rule,  the  Government  reserves  power  to  purchase  the 
railway  at  any  time  after  fifty  years  on  valuation,  and  after 
seventy-five  years  on  payment  of  50  per  cent,  of  actual  value. 

It  will  be  readily  gathered  from  what  has  been  said 
above  that  when  all  allowances  have  been  made  for 
river  traffic  and  railway  service,  the  commerce  of  the 
country  as  a  whole  is  still  chiefly  dependent  on  ordinary 
land  transport.  While  in  a  few  districts,  mainly  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  a  few  of  the  big  cities,  there 
are  good  high-roads,  available  for  public  and  private 
motor  traffic,  and  a  rather  larger  mileage  open  to  heavily 
built   carts,    most   places   are   only   accessible   for   foot 


COMMUNICATION   AND   TRANSPORT         87 

passengers,  pack-horses  and  mules,  over  more  or  less  well 
denned  tracks. 

Roads. — On  the  Sabana  of  Bogota  some  excellent 
highways  are  to  be  found.  The  most  notable  of  these 
is  the  Carretera  Central  del  Norte,  which  unites  Bogota 
to  Santa  Rosa  in  Boyaca.  It  passes  through  the 
municipalities  of  Usaquen,  Chia,  Cajica,  Sopo,  Tocancipa, 
Gachancipa,  Nemocon,  Suesca,  Choconta,  Villa  Pinzon, 
Boyaca  and  Santa  Rosa,  a  distance  of  200  miles,  and  is 
traversable  by  carriages  and  motors.  Next  in  importance 
is  the  Carretera  de  Cambao,  uniting  Bogota  with  Cambao 
some  130  miles  away  on  the  Magdalena.  These  are 
supplemented  by  a  number  of  smaller  roads  and  bridle 
paths.  In  Antioquia  the  good  cart  roads  also  radiate 
from  the  capital.  There  is  the  North  Eastern  road  to 
Santo  Domingo,  the  southern  to  Caldas,  and  others  to 
Envigado  and  La  Quiebra.  In  Atlantico  the  only  cart 
road  is  that  between  Barranquilla  and  Usiacuri,  about 
30  miles  long.  In  Bolivar  there  are  projects  for  highways 
uniting  Barranquilla  with  Calamar  and  Turbaco,  and 
another  between  Monteria  and  Magangue.  In  Boyaca 
fairly  good  branch  roads  from  the  great  North  Road 
unite  Quetame  with  Sogamoso  and  so  with  the  Magdalena, 
the  other  running  out  to  Carare.  Over  a  mile  of  the  new 
road  to  unite  Samaca,  Sachica  and  Chiquinquira,  has 
been  constructed.  In  El  Valle  a  road  of  some  40  miles 
unites  Buga  and  Palmira.  In  Norte  de  Santander  the 
Carretera  Central  del  Norte  is  under  construction,  and 
is  making  slow  progress.  In  Santander  the  only  cart 
road  is  between  Bucaramanga  and  Florida,  a  distance  of 
about  15  miles.     It  is  not  a  long  list. 


88  COLOMBIA 

Apart  from  these  are  several  well-known  and  much 
frequented  tracks,  some  traversed  by  horses  and  mules, 
others  only  possible  for  foot  passengers.  The  most 
famous  of  these  is  the  Quindio  road,  which  may  be 
entered  from  Girardot  on  the  Magdalena,  touching  at 
Ibague  and  then  over  the  Central  Cordillera  by  the 
Quindio  Pass  into  the  Cauca  valley  to  Cartago.  Another 
ancient  and  much  frequented  road  is  that  from  Neiva 
on  the  Magdalena,  across  the  paramos  of  Guanacas  and 
Coconucos  on  the  Central  Cordillera  to  Popoyan.  A  track 
is  being  made  between  Quibdo,  capital  of  the  Choco 
territory,  to  Bolivar. 

Many  of  these  tracks  are  difficult  at  the  best  of  times, 
and  even  the  good  ones  are  often  impassable  in  the 
rainy  season.  Mules  are  preferred  to  horses,  as  being 
hardier  and  more  sure-footed.  For  pack  mules  a  load, 
or  cargo,  is  limited  to  two  packs  of  from  60  to  70  kilogs. 
each,  according  to  the  route  to  be  traversed,  and  for  light 
but  bulky  loads  300  cubic  decimetres  is  the  limit.  For 
the  more  difficult  tracks  and  passes  smaller  and  lighter 
packs  are  necessary  as  they  have  to  be  carried  on  men's 
or  women's  backs.  In  all  districts  mule  and  carrier 
contractors  will  be  found,  with  their  strings  of  well 
trained  beasts  or  human  porters. 

It  is  obvious  that  for  such  transport  as  this  careful 
packing  is  essential,  not  only  as  regards  size  and  weight, 
but  the  strength  of  the  cases  or  bales  and  the  outer 
waterproof  covering. 

In  the  past  very  serious  mistakes  have  been  made  in 
connection  with  the  sending  out  of  heavy  merchandise. 
While  wonders  have  been  done  in  transporting  machinery 


COMMUNICATION   AND  TRANSPORT        89 

into  the  interior,  for  instance  railway  material  to  the 
Bogota  plateau  before  the  days  of  the  Girardot  and  cart 
roads,  on  the  other  hand  it  has  often  happened  that 
expensive  mining  and  milling  machinery,  sent  out  from 
Europe,  has  had  to  be  abandoned  in  the  forest  as  being 
too  bulky  and  heavy. 


CHAPTER  X 

HARBOURS   AND    PORTS 

Taking  the  seaports  in  order  of  their  importance  Puerto 
Colombia,  sometimes  called  Savanilla,  comes  easily  first, 
not  only  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  in  the  whole  Republic. 
It  lies  slightly  to  the  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena, 
and  is  the  chief  port  of  call  for  all  steamers  from  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  As  a  matter  of  fact  Puerto 
Colombia  is  the  modern  and  seawardly  situated  suburb 
of  the  older  port  and  town  of  Savanilla,  but  even  now 
there  is  very  little  water  inshore,  so  that  a  screwpile 
pier,  a  mile  long,  though  soon  to  be  extended  by  20  ft., 
has  been  constructed  for  the  accommodation  of  vessels. 
Steamers  drawing  25  ft.  of  water  can  be  berthed  at  the 
pierhead,  there  being  room  for  two  large  and  two  small 
vessels.  From  the  pierhead  four  lines  of  rails  connect 
with  the  single  track  railway  to  Barranquilla,  which  is 
the  real  port  and  the  Customs  headquarters.  Both  pier 
and  railway  are  the  property  of  the  Barranquilla  Railway 
and  Pier  Company,  Ltd.,  which  has  a  capital  of  £200,000 
in  shares  and  £100,000  in  bonds.  Puerto  Colombia 
and  Savanilla  are  in  themselves  quite  small  places,  having 
a  population  of  1,202. 

Barranquilla,  17  miles  up  stream  from  Puerto  Colombia 
on  the  western  bank,  is  the  true  port.  Founded  in 
1629,  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  last  century  that  its 
advantages  as  a  trade  distributing  centre  was  recognised, 
and  for  long  it  maintained  an  unequal  struggle  with  its 

90 


HARBOURS   AND   PORTS  91 

near  by  sister  city  of  Cartagena,  but  to-day  it  holds  the 
premier  place,  where  the  chief  Custom  House  of  the 
Republic  is  situated  and  the  most  developed  business  and 
manufacturing  circles  are  found.  It  has  good  quays, 
ship  repairing  yards,  great  warehouses,  public  markets, 
water  supply,  electric  lighting  and  tramways,  theatres, 
public  buildings  of  various  descriptions,  including  a 
fair  number  of  educational  establishments.  Railway 
communication  is  provided  not  only  with  Puerto 
Colombia,  but  with  Cartagena,  and  steam  launches 
connect  the  city  with  Santa  Marta.  Barranquilla  is 
also  the  headquarters  for  the  various  lines  of  river  steamers 
which  take  up  country  by  far  the  largest  percentage  of 
imports,  and  bring  down  a  very  considerable  portion  of 
produce  and  manufactures  for  export.  In  a  few  words, 
it  is  Colombia's  most  conspicious  traffic  exchange,  both 
for  passengers  and  goods.  Hotels,  banks,  clubs  and 
many  other  conveniences  exist.  There  are  projects 
for  dredging  and  otherwise  improving  the  Ceniza  mouth 
of  the  Magdalena,  so  as  to  permit  ocean-going  liners  to 
steam  right  up  to  the  port.  It  has  a  population  of 
21,138. 

Catagena,  the  old  "  Queen  of  the  Indies,"  seated  on  an 
island  in  the  bay  of  that  name,  presents  a  delightful 
picture,  with  its  old-world  fortifications  and  public 
buildings.  Although  somewhat  difficult  to  enter,  the 
port  is  extensive  and  safe,  with  all  necessary  facilities 
for  rapid  handling  of  cargoes.  The  quay,  on  which  the 
Custom  House  stands,  belongs  to  a  British  concern, 
the  Cartagena  Railway  Company,  Ltd.,  whose  line  runs 
to  Calamar,  just  above  Barranquilla  on  the  Magdalena. 


92  COLOMBIA 

At  present  much  of  the  trade  to  and  from  the  Sinu  and 
Atrato  districts  pass  through  Cartagena.  The  city, 
which  has  a  population  of  17,210,  possesses  a  number  of 
flourishing  manufacturing  industries. 

There  are  two  other  ports  of  the  Atlantic.  That 
furthest  east  is  Riohacha,  a  small  town  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Rio  Hacha,  or  Rio  Ranch eria,  on  the  Goajira 
Peninsula,  and  has  a  population  of  9,426.  Practically 
there  is  no  harbour,  the  water  being  very  shallow  all 
goods  are  transported  from  and  to  ship  by  means  of 
lighters.  At  present  the  trade  of  the  port  is  carried 
on  chiefly  by  sailing  vessels  from  Santa  Marta,  though 
steamers  call  occasionally.  It  is  the  natural  outlet 
and  inlet  for  the  Goajira  Peninsula,  which  is  almost 
entirely  inhabited  by  Indians.  Trade  is  confined  to 
the  export  of  horses  and  cattle,  hides,  pearls,  brazil 
and  divi-divi  woods,  which  the  Indians  bring  in  and 
exchange  for  the  imported  hardware  and  textiles. 

Further  to  the  west  on  the  mouth  of  the  river  Man- 
zanares,  lies  Santa  Marta,  the  excellent  harbour  being 
well  protected  and  offering  good  berths  at  wharfs  for 
ocean  steamers.  Founded  in  1525,  it  long  enjoyed  the 
rank  of  a  leading  town,  then  sank  into  comparative 
insignificance,  to  be  revived  by  the  rise  of  the  banana 
trade.  It  is  a  well  planned,  bright  little  town,  with  all 
the  public  buildings  to  be  expected  in  the  capital  of  a 
department,  also  having  a  large  market,  hospital,  electric 
lighting,  etc.  While  there  is  a  fair  general  trade  done 
here,  the  overshadowing  industry  is  the  exportation  of 
bananas,  which  are  grown  in  the  fertile,  low-lying  lands 
in  the  Magdalena  valley.     These  plantations  are  connected 


HARBOURS  AND   PORTS  93 

with  Santa  Marta  by  a  short  railway  and  its  feeders. 
There  is  a  project  for  continuing  the  railway  to  Valle 
Dupar,  which  would  tap  a  rich  agricultural  and  mining 
district,  at  present  inadequately  served  by  boat  and  canoe 
service  on  the  Cesar  River.  Enormous  possibilities  for 
the  growth  of  the  banana  trade  exist  in  this  extensive 
district. 

It  is  probable  that  some  day  that  magnificent  sheet  of 
water  known  as  the  Gulf  of  Darien  will  be  developed  as 
a  harbour.  This  will  certainly  be  the  case  if  the  scheme 
for  dredging  the  Atrato  and  the  San  Juan,  and  joining  the 
two  heads  by  a  deep  cutting,  thus  forming  a  canal  between 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  is  carried  out.  It  extends 
well  inland,  is  securely  protected,  provides  safe  anchorage 
on  a  sandy  bottom  at  depths  varying  from  \\  to  10 
fathoms,  is  provided  with  fresh  water  by  two  streams, 
the  rivers  Tuira  and  Sabana,  and  could  be  made  by  means 
of  roads  the  collecting  centre  for  the  Atrato  river.  At 
present  the  bay  is  surrounded  by  dense  forests,  man- 
groves making  an  almost  complete  fringe  to  the  bay. 
Mahogany,  palms  and  rubber  trees  grow  in  profusion, 
and  so  fertile  is  the  soil  that  sugar,  coffee  and  cocoa 
grow  almost  without  cultivation. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  three  ports  are  recognised : 
Buenaventura,  Guapi  and  Tumaco. 

Buenaventura  lies  on  an  island  on  the  south  side  of 
the  River  Buenaventura  or  San  Juan,  ten  miles  from  its 
mouth.  This  broad  stream  is  navigable  up  to  the  city 
by  vessels  drawing  24  ft.  of  water,  though  they  cannot 
approach  the  bank,  and  there  being  no  wharf,  lighterage 
is  necessary.     This  is  a  pity,  as  the  port  possesses  many 


94  COLOMBIA 

natural  advantages  and  is  known  as  one  of  the  beauty 
spots  of  the  country.  A  railway  is  being  run  from  the 
port  inland  to  Cali.  Buenaventura  is  the  gateway  not 
only  to  the  Choco  territory,  but  to  the  Cauca  country. 
It  exports  coffee,  hides,  ivory,  nuts,  rubber,  gold, 
platinum,  and  imports  provisions,  salt  and  manufactured 
goods. 

Guapi  is  a  village  some  hundred  miles  south  of 
Buenaventura,  and  although  the  seat  of  a  Custom  House, 
at  present  does  little  trade.  But  a  beginning  has  been 
made  towards  the  opening  up  of  the  timber  industry. 
There  are  considerable  mineral  possibilities  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, while  a  new  road  across  the  Cordillera  from 
Popayan  to  Micay,  just  south  of  the  port,  may  in  time  be 
found  a  useful  trade  route. 

Tumaco,  5  miles  south  of  Boca  Grande,  is  the  frontier 
town  on  the  Ecuadorian  border  and  is  situated  on  three 
islands,  Tumaco,  Viciosa  and  El  Moro,  all  lying  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Labarra  or  Rosario  river.  The  existing 
entrance  to  the  port  is  through  a  somewhat  narrow 
channel  at  the  eastern  end  of  El  Moro.  Ships  of  21  ft. 
draught  find  safe  anchorage,  but  all  cargo  is  handled  by 
lighter.  The  town  is  of  some  importance,  and  although 
the  present  trade  (exports,  coffee,  cocoa,  hides,  ivory, 
nuts,  rubber,  and  gold  dust ;  imports,  clothing,  provisions, 
and  manufactured  goods)  is  slight,  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  canal  and  a  policy  of  road  construction  may  soon 
cause  rapid  development. 

It  would  be  absurd  to  write  about  the  ports  and  har- 
bours of  Colombia  without  dealing  with  the  river  ports, 
for  the  rivers  of  this  country  are  not  only  trade  highways, 


HARBOURS  AND  PORTS  95 

but  in  a  large  measure  a  prolongation  of  the  open  trade 
routes  of  the  seas. 

On  the  Magdalena,  just  above  Barranquilla,  is  Calamar, 
where  the  Cartagena  railway  ends.  Puerto  Wilches 
(population  1,912)  is  the  river  terminus  of  the  Bucara- 
manga  railway.  About  100  miles  higher  up,  and  500 
miles  from  Barranquilla,  is  Puerto  Berrio  (population 
4,553)  the  river  terminus  of  the  Medellin  Railway. 
Then  comes  La  Dorada  where  a  railway  commences, 
touching  at  Honda  and  continuing  to  Ambalema  to 
avoid  the  falls  of  Honda.  Practically  navigation  for 
large  steamers  end  below  Honda,  but  this  port  (popu- 
lation 5,433)  is  a  thriving  commercial  centre.  At 
Girardot  (population  4,456)  there  is  the  head  of  the 
railway  to  Bogota.  Next  in  importance  after  this  is 
Neiva  (population  9,599).  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  Magdalena  is  navigable  almost  up  to  Honda 
for  large  steamers,  and  then  up  to  its  conjunction  with 
the  river  Paez  for  boats  and  rafts  ;  moreover,  it  receives 
upwards  of  500  affluents  in  its  course  of  1,055  miles,  of 
which  several  are  open  to  steamers,  and  most  to  boats 
and  canoes. 

Cali  (population  11,822)  is  the  principal  port  on  the 
Cauca,  which  is  navigable  by  steamers  up  to  Cartago, 
and  by  smaller  boats  up  to  Magangue  (population  6,099). 
Other  stretches  of  the  river  are  open  to  small  steam 
launches  and  boats.  Banco  is  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Cesar  with  the  Magdalena,  Bodega  Central  and  Bodega 
Sogamoso  are  respectively  at  the  confluences  of  the  rio 
Lebrija  and  the  Sogamoso,  and  are  the  collecting  posts  for 
trade  to  and  from  Bucaramanga. 


96  COLOMBIA 

The  Atrato,  which  flows  into  the  outer  bay  of  Darien, 
has  two  important  ports,  one  a  mere  entrepos  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Napipi,  189  miles  from  the  mouth, 
which  can  be  reached  by  large  steamers,  and  Quibdo 
(population  15,000)  130  miles  higher  up.  Above  this 
boats  and  quite  steamers  run  up  to  Lloro  and  El  Quito. 

The  San  Juan,  which  is  partly  blocked  by  a  sand  bar, 
has  the  ports  of  Noanama  and  Dipurdu,  where  there  are 
rapids  and  steamer  service  ends,  but  boats  go  up  as  far 
as  San  Pablo  (population  4,716),  139  miles  from  the  mouth. 

On  the  Meta,  a  tributary  of  the  Orinoco,  the  chief  port 
is  Orocue  (population  556),  which  is  reached  by  steamer 
from  the  Venezuelan  town  of  Ciudad  Bolivar,  on  the 
Orinoco. 


CHAPTER   XI 

FORESTS   AND   FOREST   PRODUCTS 

It  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  any  serviceable  computation 
as  to  the  extent  of  the  Colombian  forests.  Although 
they  are  met  with  in  practically  every  one  of  the  Depart- 
ments and  Territories,  and  are  known  to  be  of  enormous 
value,  little  exact  data  has  so  far  been  gathered.  Caldas, 
Colombia's  martyred  scientific  Botanist,  placed  the 
limit  of  forest  growth  at  3,365  metres  above  sea  level, 
and  that  of  vegetation  at  4,328,  which  has  been  confirmed 
by  later  observers. 

In  the  warm  zone,  which  extends  over  nearly  three- 
fifths  of  the  country,  palms  may  be  said  to  be  the  domin- 
ant feature  of  the  forests.  There  are  an  immense  variety 
of  this  species.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  are 
the  coconut  palm  ;  the  phytelephas  macrocarpa,  producing 
the  tagua  or  vegetable-ivory  nut ;  the  myroxilum 
toluifera  and  copaifera  officinalis,  producing  respectively 
balsams  of  Tolu  and  copaiba  ;  the  ceroxylon  Andicola, 
or  wax  palm  ;  the  manto,  whose  bark  produces  seamless 
sacks,  and  many  others.  Besides  these  we  must  mention 
the  much  appreciated  cedars,  mahogany  (both  the  true 
mahogany  and  its  best  substitute,  cariniana  pyriformis), 
bread  fruit  trees,  the  curious  milk  tree,  the  guayacan  (an 
intensely  hard  wood,  much  used  locally  for  railway  pur- 
poses and  in  mining),  and  several  timbers  utilised  in  build- 
ing and  cabinet-making  work.  In  a  special  class  among 
these  are  the  rubber  producing  trees,  including  the  Sapium 

97 


98  COLOMBIA 

Tolimensis,  or  white  caoutchene,  Castilloa  elastica,  Hevea, 
the  milk  tree,  etc.,  balata,  and  other  species  yielding  a 
kind  of  gutta-percha.  Allied  to  these  are  the  many 
resiniferous  trees,  among  which  may  be  specified  the 
elaegia  utilis  of  the  Caqueta  region,  producing  a  beautiful 
resin,  known  as  Pasto  varnish  ;  the  arraco,  yielding  a 
brilliant  rose  varnish,  which  becomes  a  deep,  brilliant 
black  if  mixed  with  the  juice  of  the  yuca  leaves  ;  the 
currucai  {isica  herelophila)  producing  a  white,  aromatic 
resin,  rich  in  turpentine,  which  on  testing  resembles  high- 
class  Burgundy  pitch,  and  others.  There  are  also 
numerous  trees  yielding  dyewoods  and  tannins.  Under 
the  giants  of  the  tropical  forests  we  find  such  valuable 
smaller  growths  as  the  cinchonas  (in  several  varieties)  ; 
wild  cocoa  trees,  bearing  scanty  crops  of  small  beans 
rich  in  oil ;  ginger  ;  ipecacuanha  ;  sarsaparilla  ;  vanilla  ; 
not  to  mention  gorgeous  orchids  and  beautiful  shrubs 
and  plants  which  have  been  introduced  into  our  gardens 
and  hot-houses. 

In  the  temperate  zone,  covering  nearly  one-third  of 
the  country,  at  an  altitude  of  between  1,000  and  2,600 
metres,  with  a  mean  temperature  of  between  17  and  22°  C, 
we  find  a  fair  number  of  the  tropical  trees  and  shrubs 
mixed  with  tree  ferns,  oaks,  and  the  very  useful  algarroba 
or  locust  bean  tree.  The  wax  palm,  which  appeared  in 
small  numbers  in  the  warm  zone,  is  here  more  abundant, 
and  persists  right  through  the  cold  region.  Here,  too, 
will  be  found  in  rich  profusion  the  American  agave,  which 
tapped  for  its  fermentable  juice  {pulque),  is  specially 
valued  for  its  hennequen  fibre. 

In   the  cold  zone,   between   2,600  and  3,300  metres 


FORESTS  AND   FOREST   PRODUCTS         99 

above  sea,  forming  about  one-eighth  of  the  country,  the 
outstanding  forest  trees  are  resiniferous  pines,  wax 
palms,  oaks  and  walnuts.  It  is  also  within  this  zone 
that  the  best  cinchona  bark  is  found. 

Most  of  the  dense  forests  are  found  in  the  valleys, 
such  as  those  of  the  Magdalena,  the  upper  Sinu,  Sogamoso, 
the  Meta,  Patia,  the  great  basin  of  the  Putumayo  and  such 
coastal  regions  as  the  Goajira  Peninsula  and  the  Choco 
Territory.  Very  little  has  hitherto  been  done  to  exploit 
these  riches  on  an  economic  scale.  Yet,  immense  as 
the  forests  undoubtedly  are,  complaints  are  already 
heard  as  regards  disforestation,  especially  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Magdalena,  Cauca,  Sogamoso,  etc.,  which  results 
in  the  progressive  falling  of  water  in  the  rivers,  thus 
rendered  more  difficult  to  navigate.  This  state  of  affairs 
is  due  not  so  much  to  the  clearing  of  National  and 
Departmental  forests  by  agricultural  colonists,  as  to  the 
fact  that  wood  is  almost  the  only  fuel,  outside  of  very 
restricted  areas.  It  is  not  only  used  domestically  and 
for  manufacturing  purposes,  but  also  for  firing  steamboat 
and  railway  locomotive  boilers.  Along  the  navigable 
rivers  and  the  railways  huge  stacks  of  wood  have  to  be 
kept  at  frequent  intervals,  for  the  annual  consumption 
in  this  way  is  immense.  Moreover,  very  liberal  grants 
of  forest  land  are  made  in  connection  with  mining  enter- 
prises, the  trees  being  cut  down  wholesale  not  only  for 
timbering  purposes,  but  for  fuel.  Unquestionably  there 
is  much  waste  in  these  directions  due  to  badly  directed 
energies.  Apart  from  this  the  Government  regulations 
for  controlling  forest  exploitation  are  sound  enough. 
Grants  are  made  for  units  of  not  more  than  3,000  hectares. 


100  COLOMBIA 

Concessionaires  may  receive  two  or  more  units,  but 
such  units  must  be  separated  by  tracts  of  not  less  than 
3,000  hectares.  Grants  are  made  for  only  one  clearly 
specified  line  of  exploitation  :  the  cutting  down  of  timber 
trees  ;  gathering  of  locust  beans,  coco-nuts,  of  ivory  nuts, 
of  rubber,  gums  and  resins,  of  barks,  of  vanilla,  medicinal 
herbs,  orchids  or  horticultural  specimens.  However,  a  con- 
cessionaire is  often  granted  the  rights  for  two  or  more 
kinds  of  exploitations.  As  a  rule  only  mature  trees  may  be 
cut  down,  and  provision  is  made  for  natural  growth.  Nut, 
resiniferous  and  gum  trees  must  be  exploited  in  such  a 
manner  as  only  to  gather  the  year's  crop,  without  harming 
the  trees.  It  is  extremely  doubtful,  however,  whether 
these  regulations  are  observed  as  strictly  as  they  should  be. 

As  regards  rubber  and  gutta-percha,  up  to  the  present 
the  trade  is  practically  confined  to  the  gathering  of 
the  latex  from  wild  trees  in  the  National  forests,  a  business 
largely  confined  to  Indians,  negroes,  and  a  limited  class  of 
white  and  mestizo  caucheros.  If  anything  is  to  be  done 
with  the  trade  on  a  big  scale,  regular  planting  will  have 
to  be  undertaken.  Most  of  the  rubber  now  comes  from 
the  forests  of  Antioquia,  Cauca,  Narifio  (chiefly  derived 
from  Amozone  valley  and  the  Pacific),  and  the  Choco. 

For  coco-nut  the  principal  centres  are  Antioquia 
and  El  Valle.  For  tagua,  the  Sogamoso  valley,  Narino, 
the  Choco  and  the  Goajira  Peninsula.  The  Choco  also 
exports  much  dyewoods,  vanilla,  pita  and  other  fibres. 

Few  things  in  the  commercial  history  of  a  nation  are 
more  tragic  than  the  story  of  cinchona  in  Colombia. 
At  one  time  the  bark  of  the  many  varieties  grown  within 
the  country  were  eagerly  sought  after,  for  the  extraction 


FORESTS   AND   FOREST  PRODUCTS        101 

of  its  valuable  febrifuge,  the  sulphate.  But  when  the 
plant  began  to  be  acclimatised  in  the  east,  prices  suddenly 
fell  to  so  low  a  figure  that  it  no  longer  became  profitable 
to  collect  the  bark  in  South  America,  and  thus  within 
a  few  short  years  a  big  export  trade,  forming  much  of  the 
wealth  of  such  a  country  as  Colombia,  was  wiped  out, 
apparently  with  little  hope  of  revival. 

As  regards  timber,  considering  the  untapped  wealth, 
very  little  has  been  done  to  develop  the  trade.  For  many 
years  past  there  have  been  a  number  of  sawmills,  run  by 
foreign  capital,  to  exploit  the  mahogany  and  other 
woods  of  the  upper  Sinu  ;  and  there  are  also  sawmills 
in  the  Choco  territory.  These  last  may  assume  special 
importance  after  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal, 
which  will  coincide  with  local  railway  and  mining 
developments. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  there  are  several  obstacles 
to  the  economical  development  of  the  timber  trade. 
First  is  the  fact,  common  to  the  majority  of  tropical 
and  semi-tropical  forests,  that  different  species  though 
well  represented  are  rather  widely  scattered.  Mahogany, 
cedars,  castilloas,  do  not  grow  in  more  or  less  closely 
connected  clumps,  but  appear  mostly  as  isolated  speci- 
mens. This,  of  course,  adds  to  the  difficulty  and  cost  of 
exploitation  when  handling  bulk  timber.  The  drawback 
is  not  quite  so  apparent  when  dealing  with  the  gathering 
of  nuts  or  the  more  precious  resins.  These  remarks  also 
apply  to  the  difficulties  of  transport. 

It  may  be  said,  therefore,  that  while  the  forests  of 
Colombia  offer  great  possibilities  of  wealth,  they  require 
very  careful  study  and  special  means  of  exploitation. 

»— (2248) 


CHAPTER  XII 

AGRICULTURE 

Agriculture,  including  cattle  raising,  though  still  in 
its  infancy,  is  the  real  mainstay  of  the  Colombian  people. 
It  is  carried  on  in  every  part  of  the  country,  under  widely 
varying  conditions,  but  mostly  on  quite  primitive  lines. 
For  instance,  locally  intensive  cultivation  is  understood 
thus  :  a  tract  of  virgin  forest,  in  the  mountainous  region, 
is  cleared  of  its  useful  woods,  and  the  remainder  is  burned 
down,  then  for  two  or  three  years,  four  at  the  utmost, 
crops  of  cereals  and  vegetables  are  raised,  and  when  the 
ground  is  exhausted  of  its  fertilising  ashes  and  native 
salts,  the  land  is  abandoned.  It  is  extremely  rare  to 
find  fertilisers  used,  even  for  such  crops  as  coffee,  cocoa 
and  cotton,  and  although  rich  deposits  of  nitrates  are 
to  be  found  in  the  country,  what  little  is  used  in  the  way 
of  manure  is  imported. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  owing  to  the 
extraordinary  range  of  altitude  and  temperature,  almost 
all  crops  can  be  grown  profitably  in  Colombia.  Probably 
the  most  satisfactory  plan  to  show  the  condition  of  affairs 
is  to  deal  with  the  country  in  three  zones,  as  already 
defined  in  the  Chapter  on  Forests  and  Forest  Products. 

Taking,  then,  the  tropical  or  warm  region,  we  find 
the  main  crops  are  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  cocoa,  bananas, 
coco-nut  trees,  rice,  cotton  and  to  a  limited  extent  rubber. 

Sugar-cane. — Four  varieties  are  grown,  known  locally 
as  paipa,  Colonial,  peluda  and  morada.     The  first  named 

102 


AGRICULTURE  103 

gives  the  best  results,  and  appears  to  be  identical  with 
the  kind  more  widely  known  as  Singapore  cane.  It 
is  grown  largely  on  the  rich  valley  lands  of  Cauca,  El 
Valle,  Cundinamarca,  Antioquia  and  the  flat  regions  of 
the  Atlantic.  It  grows  without  fertiliser,  with  very 
little  cultivation  beyond  occasional  hoeing  of  the  land, 
and  will  yield  for  some  eighty  years,  giving  crops  of  over 
80  tons  of  cane  per  acre  in  good  localities,  and  an  average 
of  well  over  40  tons.  In  Antioquia,  which  is  not  the 
department  of  largest  output,  the  crop  amounts  to  well 
over  22,000,000  lb.  of  cane.  At  one  time  there  was  a  large 
export  of  sugar  from  Colombia,  but  although  the  acreage 
under  crop  has  increased,  now  the  product  hardly  suffices 
for  local  needs.  Yet,  though  in  the  main  a  crop  of  the 
tropical  zone,  it  will  flourish  and  is  fairly  widely  cultivated 
up  to  7,000  feet.  The  cane  juice  is  usually  worked  in 
small  primitive  mills,  but  there  is  a  large  modern 
establishment  at  Cartagena  and  another  in  the  Cauca 
valley. 

The  greater  part  of  the  juice  is  made  into  panela,  a 
brown  maple-like  sugar,  which  forms  a  staple  food 
among  the  peasantry  and  travellers.  It  is  palatable 
and  nourishing.  Next  in  importance  is  the  preparation 
of  fermented  beverages,  such  as  aguardiente,  chicha, 
guarapo,  etc.  Finally,  refined  sugar  is  made  for  table  use 
and  for  the  numerous  chocolate  factories.  Given  adequate 
labour,  there  ought  to  be  a  great  future  for  sugar  grain. 

Tobacco. — Tobacco  of  excellent  quality,  some  said 
to  be  equal  to  the  best  Havana,  is  largely  grown,  though 
mostly  for  local  consumption.  Germany,  however,  is  a 
large  and  increasing  customer  for  Colombian   tobacco. 


104  COLOMBIA 

The  chief  centres  for  these  crops  are  Bolivar,  the  Mag 
dalena  and  Cauca  valleys.     Up  to  1909  the  sale  of  tobacco 
in  the  Republic  was  reserved  as  a  Government  monopoly, 
but  this  is  no  longer  so.     The  cultivation  and  export  of 
tobacco  are  now  free. 

Cocoa. — Cacao  theobroma  grows  wild  in  the  forests  (in 
damp  lowlands),  the  indigenous  plants  yielding  moderate 
crops  of  small  beans,  containing  a  heavy  percentage  of 
fat.  It  is  met  with  in  the  wild  state  covering  thousands 
of  acres,  and  rising  to  about  45  ft.  high.  However,  the 
gathering  of  wild  cocoa  beans  has  not  been  found 
profitable.  It  is  susceptible  to  cultivation,  and  then  gives 
good  results.  The  varieties  generally  planted  are  the 
cajizo  or  cacao  morado,  with  a  bean  as  large  as  a  Jordan 
almond  ;  the  verdoso,  or  white,  with  a  larger  bean  ; 
the  bicolor,  and  the  cimaron.  It  is  planted  under 
bananas  for  early  protection,  with  guamo  Colorado, 
cambulo  and  cumulo  for  permanent  shade.  While  the 
climate  is  admirably  suited  to  this  cultivation,  and  the 
cocoa  enjoys  a  very  good  reputation  in  the  market, 
little  more  than  enough  for  local  demands  (which  are 
great)  is  grown.  The  chief  centres  of  cultivation  are 
Tolima,  Cauca,  Huila  and  Antioquia. 

Plantains  and  Bananas. — Over  certainly  more  than 
half  of  the  inhabited  districts  the  fruit  of  plantains 
form  the  principal  article  of  food  among  the  masses. 
Plantains  are,  therefore,  grown  on  quite  a  large  scale 
in  the  low-lying,  damp  and  hot  sea  borders  and  in  the 
tropical  valleys,  but  plantations  extend  well  through  the 
temperate  zone.  It  is,  however,  in  the  hot  damp  regions 
that  the  most  prolific  crops  are  secured.     The  plants 


AGRICULTURE  105 

require  very  little  cultivation,  beyond  occasional  removal 
of  weeds.  When  the  crown  of  fruit  is  ready  for  con- 
sumption, the  plant  is  cut  down,  fresh  stems  shoot  up 
from  the  suckers  to  bear  fruit  and  in  their  turn  to  be  cut 
down.  In  this  way  good  stools  will  last  for  many  years. 
The  crops  are  heavy,  and  the  fruit  are  eaten  green  or 
ripe.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts,  the  lower  Mag- 
dalena  valley  and  Antioquia  are  among  the  largest 
centres  of  this  crop.  With  regard  to  the  banana,  this 
industry  is  a  matter  of  recent  growth,  and  is  largely 
due  to  the  action  of  the  United  Fruit  Company.  Export 
of  bananas  from  Colombia  has  risen  from  1,295,228 
bunches  in  1905-6  to  over  6,000,000  bunches  in  1911-12. 
Bananas  thrive  best  in  a  hot  damp  atmosphere,  and 
rich,  light,  moist  soil,  at  an  altitude  of  not  more  than 
1,500  meters.  About  350  trees  are  planted  per  acre  ; 
the  land  requires  irrigation  and  periodical  clearing 
from  weeds.  Within  two  years  a  paying  crop  may 
be  cut.  The  industry  has  been  brought  to  its  highest 
pitch  in  the  district  of  Santa  Marta,  where  close  on 
40,000  acres  are  under  cultivation,  and  about  100,000 
more  acres  available.  The  plantations  are  here  well 
laid  out,  with  irrigation  canals,  often  short  lines  of  rails 
leading  to  the  Santa  Marta  Railway,  managers'  houses 
and  labourers'  quarters.  There  is  also  considerable 
cultivation  of  the  banana  in  the  Magdalena  valley  and 
in  Bolivar.  Some  four  years  ago  the  Hamburg- 
Colombian  Bananen  Aktien-Gesellschaft,  connected  with 
the  Hamburg-American  Steamship  line,  obtained  a  grant 
from  the  Government  of  12,000  acres  on  the  Gulf  of  Uraba 
in  order  to  develop  the  banana  industry.     About  a  third 


106  COLOMBIA 

of  this  area  is  now  under  cultivation.  The  company 
binds  itself  to  the  construction  of  a  pier  and  wharf — 
Puerto  Cesar,  and  a  railway,  with  telegraph,  telephones 
and  wireless  station.  All  bananas  are  to  be  free  of  export 
duty  and  taxation,  while  much  of  the  material  required 
for  establishing  and  developing  the  estate  is  to  be 
imported  duty  free.  This  shows  the  importance  attached 
to  the  industry  by  the  Government,  and  the  liberal 
views  they  take  of  their  duties  in  assisting  capitalists. 
Hitherto  rather  more  than  half  of  the  exports  have  gone 
to  the  United  States  and  the  balance  to  the  United 
Kingdom. 

Coco- nut  Palms. — Most  of  the  large  coco-nut  palm 
plantations  are  found  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts. 
The  exports  are  chiefly  to  the  United  States  and  to 
Germany,  but  there  is  a  considerable  use  of  fibres,  and 
also  of  oil  for  soap  and  candle  making,  locally. 

Rice  grows  freely,  without  much  attention,  wherever 
rich,  hot  irrigated  land  is  available.  Both  Patna  and 
Carolina  varieties  are  sown.  In  a  few  places  cultivation 
is  carried  on  under  scientific  conditions  and  gives  very 
good  returns. 

Cotton. — An  excellent  cotton,  derived  from  Egyptian 
seed,  is  grown  mostly  in  Antioquia  and  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  The  qualities  grown  on  the  slope  of  the  Orinoco 
are  unrivalled  for  the  length  of  the  fibre.  So  far  com- 
paratively little  attention  has  been  given  to  this  crop, 
although  it  does  not  entail  much  trouble  and  is  in  good 
local  demand,  to  supply  the  native  spinning  mills.  On 
the  other  hand,  locusts  have  been  the  greatest  obstacle 
to  the  development  of  cotton  cultivation. 


AGRICULTURE  107 

Agave  Americana. — The  agave  is  chiefly  cultivated 
as  a  hedge,  but  it  merits  closer  attention,  as  even  at 
present  the  local  demand  for  hennequen  fibre  is  insuffi- 
ciently met  by  local  supply.  Manioc,  or  Yuca,  is  also 
a  plant  grown  largely  on  the  coast  and  certain  hot  valley 
zones,  to  yield  flour  for  the  peasant  and  labouring  classes. 

In  the  temperate  zone,  the  principal  crops  are  coffee, 
ground  nuts,  cereals,  beans. 

Coffee. — This  is  the  most  important  of  all  crops, 
as  there  is  an  immense  demand  for  it  both  for  export 
and  for  local  consumption.  Colombian  coffee  stands 
very  high  as  regards  quality,  coming  immediately  after 
choice  Arabic  beans.  The  trees  grow  freely  enough  at 
altitudes  between  say  500  and  7,000  ft.  above  sea-level. 
They  do  best  under  temperatures  ranging  between  59° 
and  77°  F.  On  the  lower  warm  slopes,  large,  rather 
strong  berries  are  grown,  and  here  the  trees  require 
shade  trees  and  a  fair  amount  of  attention.  Higher 
up  the  berries  are  smaller,  milder  and  more  choice,  the 
trees  do  not  require  shade,  demand  little  attention,  but 
have  a  comparatively  short  life.  Most  of  the  Colombian 
coffee  is  grown  in  Cundinamarca,  Tolima  (the  Bogota 
and  Tolima  crops  being  most  highly  valued),  Antioquia, 
Caldas,  Cauca,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  in 
Santander,  Cucuta  being  a  great  centre,  with  its  principal 
outlet  through  Venezuela.  Although  coffee  is  a  difficult 
crop  owing  to  the  market  fluctuations  resulting  from  the 
Brazilian  Valorization  scheme,  there  appears  to  be 
room  for  considerable  development  in  this  direction,  the 
bulk  of  coffee  land  on  valley  slopes  being  still  virgin  land. 
A  fair  amount  of  labour,  however,  is  necessary. 


108  COLOMBIA 

Cereals. — Wheat  and  maize  are  the  leading  cereals 
of  the  temperate  zone.  Maize  is  grown  in  most  parts  of 
the  country,  and  wheat  gives  good  crops,  especially  in 
Cundinamarca,  Boyaca,  Cauca  and  Santander,  up  to 
about  7,000  ft.  Both  grains,  however,  could  be  more 
extensively  cultivated,  as  the  yields  are  good.  So  far 
local  demands  are  not  satisfied. 

Ground  Nuts. — These  are  grown  between  5,000  and 
6,000  ft.  altitude,  mainly  as  a  cheap  food  for  the  people, 
though  some  oil  is  extracted  for  local  soap  works. 
There  is  ample  room  for  extension,  the  yield  being 
excellent. 

In  the  cold  zone,  there  is  much  fertile  plateaux  land, 
which  bears  some  good  wheat,  choice  barley  and  splendid 
potatoes.  Partly  owing  to  local  demand,  partly  to 
difficulties  of  transport,  the  coastal  population  import 
almost  all  the  potatoes  that  they  require.  Beans,  both 
habas  and  frejoles,  are  also  grown  on  a  large  scale  in 
the  higher  regions  as  a  staple  popular  food.  In  the 
neighbourhoods  of  towns  vegetables  and  fruits  are 
generally  raised  in  abundance,  the  quality  being 
good. 

Cattle. — The  raising  of  horned  cattle  is  carried  on 
pretty  widely  over  the  country,  but  the  most  favourable 
localities  are  considered  to  be  the  grassy  plains  of  the 
Magdalena,  the  flat  districts  in  Bolivar  and  Atlantico, 
and  the  whole  valley  of  the  Cauca.  It  is  held  that  the 
vast  llanos  of  the  Meta  territory  will  one  day  become  a 
huge  cattle-breeding  ground,  but  although  there  are 
already  some  very  large  ranches  in  that  region,  some  with 
upwards  of  10,000  head,  it  is  found  that  the  rank  grass 


_     „.   .  —    ..,,,, ... 


1 


Open  and  Covered  Markets,  Bogota 


AGRICULTURE  109 

gives  poor  nourishment.  To  some  extent  there  is  a  move- 
ment to  bring  cattle  bred  on  the  llanos  of  San  Martin 
and  Casanare  to  fatten  on  the  more  luscious  grazing 
grounds  of  the  Magdalena  and  its  affluents.  Fairly 
good  cattle  are  raised  by  the  Indians  of  the  Goajira 
Peninsula.  For  many  years  past  the  original  strain  of 
Spanish  oxen  have  been  improved  by  crossing  with 
pedigree  stock  from  England,  Holland  and  Normandy. 
A  considerable  trade  in  exporting  cattle  to  Cuba  and  to 
Panama  existed  for  some  time,  but  the  Cuban  sanitary 
regulations  have  made  it  impossible  to  continue.  There 
is  also  talk  of  establishing  packing  houses  on  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coasts.  Oxen  are  still  much  used  for  draught 
purposes  over  the  few  roads,  over  flat  country  and  the 
more  open  forest  tracks,  though  on  roads  they  are  being 
displaced  by  motor  vehicles.  In  a  few  regions,  Bolivar 
for  instance,  large  flocks  of  sheep  of  English  breeds  are 
kept.  Goats,  both  in  the  hot  and  temperate  zones,  are 
numerous,  being  bred  for  their  flesh  and  milk,  and  also 
for  their  skins. 

Colombian  horses  are  usually  Andalusians  crossed 
with  Arab  and  English.  They  are  hardy  beasts,  much 
appreciated  in  the  adjoining  countries.  A  specially 
sturdy  type  is  bred  by  the  Indians  of  Goajira.  For 
local  purposes,  however,  mules  are  preferred,  as  they 
are  more  sure-footed  in  the  mountains  and  can  carry 
heavier  burdens  as  pack  animals.  They  are  rather  small, 
but  admirably  suited  for  the  country.  Some  of  the 
largest  and  best  kinds  are  bred  on  the  llanos  of  the 
north  of  Tolima.  Donkeys  are  also  bred  to  a  great 
extent. 


110  COLOMBIA 

As  regards  the  possibilities  of  early  developments 
of  the  cattle  trade,  Mr.  Milne,  already  cited,  states  : 
"  In  the  Department  of  Bolivar  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
conditions  are  economically  favourable,"  and  adds : 
"  In  view  of  the  constant  reclamation  of  grazing  areas 
for  agricultural  purposes  in  the  United  States  and  other 
countries,  the  land  suitable  for  cattle  breeding  around 
the  Carribbean  sea  will  probably  be  developed  in  the  next 
decade."  To  this  area  may  be  safely  added  considerable 
tracks  along  the  Atrato  and  the  Cauca. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  while  old  cattle  land 
in  the  United  States  is  rapidly  being  brought  under  the 
plough,  the  American  meat  packers  find  it  necessary 
to  compete  with  England  in  the  Argentine  meat  market 
in  order  to  supply  the  demand  of  their  own  people, 
which  considerably  exceeds  supply. 

Land  Settlement. — This  chapter  would  not  be 
complete  without  saying  a  few  words  about  the  oppor- 
tunities existing  for  taking  up  public  land  for  agricultural 
and  grazing  purposes.  A  colonist  may  select  a  plot 
and  by  cultivating  and  fencing  secure  a  title  to  it,  as  well 
as  to  an  adjoining  plot  of  equal  size,  merely  for  the  trouble 
of  surveying  it,  petitioning  the  proper  authorities  and 
paying  certain  moderate  fees.  A  large  number  of 
Antioquians  and  Tolimese  have  become  colonists  in 
this  way,  overflowing  into  other  departments,  both 
near  and  far.  The  mulattoes  of  the  Choco  also  provide 
a  number  of  good  agricultural  colonists,  especially  in  the 
hot  regions. 

The  Law  and  Decree  relating  to  the  taking  up  of 
public  lands  will  be  found  in  the  Appendices. 


AGRICULTURE 


111 


Number  of  Persons  Engaged  in  Agriculture  and 
Cattle-Breeding 


Agri- 

Cattle- 

culture. 

breeding 

Antioquia 

.      117,375 

2,201 

Atlantico 

14,915 

300 

Bolivar 

37,278 

5,240 

Boyoca 

84,326 

4,006 

Caldas 

63,733 

1,091 

Cauca 

43,009 

213 

Cundinamarca 

97,777 

848 

El  Valle 

23,094 

1,263 

Huila 

23,856 

368 

Narifio 

49,816 

406 

Norte  de  Santander 

31,813 

367 

Santander 

55,002 

424 

Tolima 

47,031 

3,754 

Choco 

26,459 

430 

Goajira 

285 

14,563 

Meta 

1,516 

95 

No  statistics  are  available  for  Magdalena 


CHAPTER  XIII 

MINING  AND   MINERALS 

Although  Colombia  is  wondrously  rich  in  all  kinds  of 
minerals,  at  the  present  time  it  is  gold  and  platinum, 
together  with  emeralds,  that  are  chiefly  exploited. 
Formerly  the  extraction  and  export  of  silver  reached  a 
high  level  as  to  quantity  and  value,  but  since  the  fall  in 
price,  the  mining  of  this  metal,  apart  from  its  association 
with  gold,  has  been  neglected. 

In  spite  of  the  vast  amount  of  gold  sent  out  of  the 
country  since  the  Spanish  conquest,  it  still  remains 
one  of  the  richest  gold  districts  in  the  world.  The 
metal  either  in  quartz  veins  or  in  alluviums  is  found 
scattered  in  almost  every  corner  of  the  Republic,  and  in  a 
great  many  places  the  exploitations,  both  of  quartz 
veins  and  of  placers,  is  carried  out  on  a  thoroughly 
scientific  plan,  though  in  others  the  most  primitive 
methods  prevail.  This  is  especially  true  as  regards  the 
washing  of  the  river  gravels  and  sands  ;  consequently 
it  is  impossible  to  secure  accurate  figures  of  the  country's 
gold  production,  much  of  the  gold-dust  winnings  going 
unrecorded. 

Silver  is  found  native,  as  galena  and  as  argentiferous 
blendes.     It  is  also  associated  with  gold  and  tin. 

Platinum  was  discovered  as  early  as  1737,  but  it  was 
not  until  nearly  a  hundred  years  later  that  its  extraction 
became  possible,  and  the  metal  assumed  importance. 
Colombian  platinum  is  much  purer  than  the  Russian  metal, 

112 


MINING  AND  MINERALS  113 

the  ores  containing  from  80  to  85  per  cent.  It  is  found 
in  placer  mines,  in  grains  associated  with  iridium,  osmium, 
paladium,  rodium  and  ruthenium,  as  well  as  with  gold. 
Platinum  was  formerly  a  Government  monopoly. 

Good  iron  is  found  pretty  widely  distributed,  the  ores 
most  generally  worked  being  compact  limonite. 

Copper  is  abundant,  and  is  found  native,  distributed 
in  veins  as  grains,  and  also  in  blocks,  often  weighing 
several  pounds.     It  is  constantly  associated  with  gold. 

Tin  is  found  in  primitive  rock  formations,  usually 
associated  with  quartz,  felspar,  tourmaline,  mica,  etc. 

Several  valuable  deposits  of  manganese  have  been 
located. 

Lead,  though  abundant  in  rich  deposits,  is  little  worked 
owing  to  the  lowness  of  price. 

Mercury,  and  sulphate  of  mercury,  are  found  in  many 
districts,  and  are  worked  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Zinc,  antimony,  and  arsenic  also  exist,  though  they 
are  not  worked,  but  emery  receives  some  attention. 

Sulphur  is  extracted  in  considerable  quantities  both 
from  old  and  existing  volcanic  regions. 

Nitre,  in  Santander,  alum  in  Santander  and  Norte  de 
Santander,  nitrate  of  soda  in  the  Valle  Dupar,  are 
plentiful  but  much  neglected. 

Rock  salt  forms  an  important  branch  of  industry, 
and  is  to  some  extent  a  Government  monopoly.  Some 
of  the  salt  mines,  at  Zipaquira  and  Nemocon,  are  well 
equipped.  Salt  is  also  evaporated  from  saline  springs, 
and  on  the  Atlantic  from  sea  water. 

Coal  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  of 
good  quality,   an   average  sample  giving  55  per  cent. 


114  COLOMBIA 

of  pure  carbon,  39  per  cent,  volatile  matter,  with  5,740 
calories.  So  far  coal  has  only  been  mined  in  small 
quantities  for  local  consumption.  But  with  better 
transport  facilities  it  should  replace  wood  as  a  fuel  on 
steamers  and  locomotives.  The  rich  beds  in  the  Western 
Cordillera,  especially  those  near  the  Atlantic  coast,  and 
those  stretching  from  the  Cauca  valley  to  the  Pacific 
slope,  offer  splendid  opportunities  for  development, 
having  regard  to  manufacturing  and  shipping  needs. 

Asphalte  of  excellent  quality,  containing  over  99*50 
per  cent,  of  bitumen,  is  quarried  and  used  largely  for  the 
manufacture  of  paint  and  varnishes. 

Petroleum  is  known  to  exist  in  many  districts,  but  very 
little  has  been  done  to  exploit  the  deposits,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  Colombia  imports  large  quantities  of  oil. 

Colombia  possesses  a  rich  assortment  of  precious 
stones.  At  one  time  the  Jesuits  were  reputed  to  have 
worked  a  diamond  mine  at  Tena,  province  of  Tequendama, 
Department  of  Cundinamarca.  But  when  this  diamond 
mine  was  examined  by  Percira  Gamba  it  turned  out  to  be 
a  zirconium  mine.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  the 
Petits  Peres  could  not,  at  the  time,  differentiate  between  the 
two,  or  if  the  whole  thing  was  a  legend.  In  the  sands 
of  the  Platayaco  river,  in  the  Caqueta  territory,  fine 
Orient  rubies  and  water-borne  sapphires  are  found  ;  while 
in  the  Mayo  river,  an  affluent  of  the  Patia,  rubies,  sapphires 
and  other  varieties  of  corundium  are  found,  but  of  too 
pale  a  colour  to  be  of  any  value.  Garnets,  amethysts, 
carnelians  are  widely  distributed.  Deposits  of  j  asper,  onyx, 
agate  and  rock  crystal  are  worked  to  a  small  extent, 
and  amber    is  said  to  be  found   near    Bucarammanga. 


MINING  AND  MINERALS  115 

Of  all  these,  however,  little  of  interest  to  commerce 
can  be  said  as  compared  to  the  emeralds.  Colombia 
supplies  the  world  with  the  greatest  share  as  well  as  purest 
and  most  highly  prized  of  emeralds.  The  chief  mines 
are  in  Boyaca,  the  Muzo,  Coscuez  and  Somondoco  being 
Government  property,  though  long  worked  by  an  English 
company.  Now,  however,  the  Government  has  resumed 
direct  control,  having  purchased  the  lease  and  other  rights 
of  the  shareholders.  The  first  named  mine  is  extensive 
and  well  equipped.  Emeralds  were  declared  a  monopoly 
to  this  extent :  all  stones  had  to  be  sold  through  the 
Government  agency,  so  as  to  adjust  supply  to  demand. 
According  to  the  law  219,  1907  (Articles  5  and  6),  the 
Government  exacts  10  per  cent,  on  the  gross  produce  of 
every  bill  of  sale  of  emeralds  exploited  by  private  persons, 
and  has  the  right  to  exercise  the  necessary  inspection  to 
ascertain  the  exact  amount  of  such  sales. 

We  may  now  briefly  review  the  various  departments 
in  connection  with  their  mineral  wealth. 

Antioquia  has  always  been  one  of  the  leading  mining 
districts,  and  still  maintains  its  position,  both  as  regards 
quartz  and  placer  deposits.  From  official  sources  it 
appears  that  since  1739  no  less  than  12,728  mining 
claims  have  been  made  good,  mostly  in  connection  with 
gold.  For  1911  it  was  estimated  that  gold  and  silver 
was  exported  to  the  value  of  about  350,000  dollars  gold 
per  month.  While  some  twenty  or  more  rivers  are  classed 
as  having  rich  gold  alluviums,  it  is  chiefly  the  sands  and 
gravels  of  the  Cauca,  Nechi,  Pato  and  Porce  that  are 
worked  on  a  big  scale.  On  the  Pato  the  ores  are  dealt 
with  by  the  Pato  Mines  (Colombia)  Ltd.,  an  offshoot  of 


116  COLOMBIA 

the  Oroville  Dredging  Company  of  California,  which  is  a 
British  concern.  It  has  erected  a  large  dam  on  the 
river  and  is  proceeding  by  dredging.  The  bench  gravel 
is  very  deep  here.  At  Caceres  the  Breitung  Mine  Cor- 
poration is  also  going  in  for  dredging.  Elsewhere 
primitive  washing  methods  are  the  rule,  though  on  the 
Nechi,  Porce  and  Cauca  some  French  and  American  firms 
are  working  with  hydraulic  monitors.  Quartz  mines  are 
numerous,  but  the  most  noteworthy  are  at,  or  in  neigh- 
bourhood of,  Amain,  Remedios  and  Titiribi.  Of  late 
years  houses  connected  with  the  Rand  mining  industry 
have  been  turning  their  attention  to  this  part  of  Colombia, 
but  there  is  still  an  immense  percentage  of  the  auriferous 
ground  left  untouched,  and  as  this  section  is  fairly 
accessible,  and  steadily  becoming  more  so,  the  chances 
of  success  are  many.  Silver  plays  a  big  part  at  Zancudo, 
Titiribi.  Coal  and  iron  are  mined  in  a  few  places,  the 
iron  being  smelted  and  worked  up  into  rails,  mills  and 
similar  articles.  There  are  rich  coal  deposits  on  the 
Gulf  of  Darien. 

Atlantico  is  merely  interesting  from  the  fact  that 
petroleum  indications  are  fairly  marked  about  Barran- 
quilla,  though  only  one  serious  attempt  at  sinking  wells, 
apparently  without  great  results,  having  been  made 
at  Corregimiento. 

Bolivar  has  ten  gold  mines  in  operation.  Good  coal 
is  found  near  the  river  Sinu.  There  are  also  indications 
of  petroleum  about  Cartagena. 

Boyaca  is  highly  mineralised,  though  little  developed. 
Licences  have  been  issued  for  eleven  gold,  twelve  silver,  ten 
copper,  three  quicksilver,  and  157  emerald  mines.     It  is  in 


MINING  AND   MINERALS  117 

this  department  that  the  celebrated  government  emerald 
mines  of  Muzo  are  found.  Several  small  asphalte  mines 
are  worked  ;  and  the  salt  springs  of  Chita,  Muneque, 
Chameza,  Pajarito,  Rector,  Mongua,  Pauto,  Chaquipay, 
and  Pizarra  are  exploited. 

Caldas  is  another  active  mining  centre.  Since  the 
creation  of  the  department  2,610  mines  were  denounced 
and  855  licensed.  Probably  the  richest  of  the  gold  mines 
are  at  Marmato  and  Supia.  With  very  few  exceptions 
the  rivers  are  richly  auriferous. 

Cauca  is  also  a  gold  and  silver  district.  From  1895 
to  1912,  4,106  gold  mines  were  denounced.  The  many 
rivers  are  rich  in  gold-bearing  sands  and  gravel,  with  some 
platinum.  The  mining  centres  are  Patia,  Timbiqui 
and  Buenos  Aires.  There  are  abundant  indications 
of  coal. 

Cundinamarca  is  a  close  rival  of  Antioquia  as  a  mineral 
district,  so  far  as  variety  is  concerned,  though  develop- 
ments have  not  been  great.  Iron  has  been  largely 
exploited  in  the  Provinces  of  Facatativa  and  Zipaquira 
in  connection  with  the  excellent  coal  deposits  of  Bogota, 
Facatativa,  Zipaquira  and  Tequendama.  There  appear 
to  be  great  possibilities  in  this  direction.  Recently  gold 
and  silver  mines  have  been  surveyed  in  Zipaquira. 
Copper,  lead,  as  well  as  asphalt  rock  crystal  and  jasper 
are  found  in  most  of  the  provinces.  Salt,  however, 
stands  pre-eminent  as  the  mineral  wealth  of  this  depart- 
ment, the  principal  seats  of  the  industry  being  at  the 
mines  of  Zipaquira,  Nemocon,  Zesquile  and  Tausa, 
with  saline  springs  of  minor  importance  at  Gacheta, 
Cumaral  and  Upin.     The  production  of  the  first  named 

9—  («Z48) 


118  COLOMBIA 

amounted  to  460,896  dollars  gold  in  1911.  This  output 
nearly  suffices  for  local  needs,  so  the  other  mines  and 
springs  are  worked  intermittently.  Salt  mining  and 
evaporation  is  a  Government  monopoly,  though  in  minor 
exploitations  often  farmed  out. 

El  Valle  is  a  highly  mineralised  pocket  between  the 
Central  and  western  Cordilleras.  From  1910  to  1912, 
644  mines  were  denounced  and  236  licensed.  Of  these 
446  were  gold,  165  gold  and  silver,  thirty  platinum,  and 
one  each  of  copper,  emery  and  talc.  An  iron  mine  is 
worked  in  the  region  of  Cali  in  connection  with  coal 
winning,  and  there  are  abundant  indications  of  coal  and 
rock  crystal  in  other  sections  of  the  department.  The 
coal  beds  near  Cali  apparently  run  right  through  to  the 
Pacific  slope,  and  are  estimated  to  be  of  immense  value. 

Huila  possesses  four  considerable  quartz  mines  in 
active  exploitation,  while  the  rich  gold  alluviums  of  the 
Magdalena,  Yaguara,  Bache,  and  Aipe  are  washed 
in  primitive  fashion,  but  with  fair  yields. 

Magdalena  is  well  worthy  of  close  study  from  the 
mineralogical  point  of  view,  as  it  presents  many  interest- 
ing possibilities.  Coal  was  quite  early  found  on  the 
south-eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta, 
near  Serrejon,  and  is  known  to  be  plentiful  in  the  Goajira 
Peninsula.  The  slopes  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera  also 
would  seem  to  be  worth  exploring,  and  several  of  the 
tributary  streams  have  gold  bearing  sands  and  gravels. 

Narifio,  besides  being  a  gold  bearing  country,  is  one 
of  the  probable  chief  future  sources  of  platinum.  From 
1904  to  1912  no  less  than  2,452  gold  mines  were 
denounced,  though  of  these  only  six  of  the  quartz  mines 


MINING  AND   MINERALS  119 

are  exploited  in  a  large  way  in  accordance  with  modern 
practice.  But  it  is  considered  that  the  whole  of  the 
western  part  of  this  district  is  auriferous  ;  certainly  the 
rivers  are  rich  in  gold  dust.  In  the  Barbacoas  country, 
between  Ecuador  and  the  river  Micay,  the  gold  is 
associated  with  a  very  small  percentage  of  platinum, 
but  it  is  considered  that  richer  deposits  of  the  latter 
metal  may  ultimately  be  discovered.  Coal  is  also  found 
here.  So  far  the  extractions  of  metals  in  this  department 
is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Colombians,  very  little 
foreign  capital  being  engaged  in  the  industry. 

Norte  de  Santander  presents  two  distinct  sections. 
On  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cordillera,  in  the  provinces 
of  Cucuta  are  rich  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron 
and  coal,  with  good  indications  of  petroleum.  On  the 
western  slope,  in  the  province  of  Ocana,  copper,  lead 
and  coal  are  found.  These  coal  measures  are  likely  to  be 
valuable  only  so  far  as  local  needs  are  concerned. 

Santander,  according  to  official  statistics,  has  in  oper- 
ation sixty-three  gold  and  silver  quartz  mines,  two  gold 
placer  exploitations,  eight  copper  mines,  ten  asphalte 
and  one  of  talc.  There  are  several  foreign  mining 
companies  at  work  in  the  province  of  Bucaramanga. 

Tolima  is  receiving  steadily  increasing  notice  from  the 
mining  aspect,  the  number  of  claims  denounced  and 
licensed  showing  a  progressive  development.  There  are 
at  present  over  sixty  gold  and  silver  quartz  and  placer 
claims  being  worked.  The  gold  bearing  veins  are 
decidedly  patchy,  and  show  a  tendency  to  peter  out  at 
no  great  depth.  Among  the  leading  concerns,  there  is  the 
North    Tolima    Mining    Company,     an    English    firm 


120  COLOMBIA 

The  rivers  Saldana,  Ata,  Cucuana,  Luisa  and  Coello  are 
gold  bearing. 

As  regards  the  Intendencias  and  Comisarias  little  is 
known  outside  of  El  Choco.  It  is  in  this  territory  that 
the  chief  centre  of  the  platinum  industry  is  found,  the 
most  important  placers  being  on  the  Condoto  and  Platina 
rivers,  though  the  precious  metal  is  also  washed  on  the 
Agua  Clara,  Andagueda,  Bebara,  Certegui,  Iro,  Negua, 
Tamana  and  several  others.  The  washing  operations 
are  quite  primitive,  and  almost  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  negroes  and  mulattoes.  Gold  washing  is  of  secondary 
importance,  though  inseparable  from  washing  for 
platinum. 

Mr.  Bodiam,  formerly  British  Vice-Consul  at  Medellin, 
made  the  following  useful  official  report  on  the  climate, 
labour  conditions  and  means  of  access  to  the  mining 
districts  of  Antioquia  and  certain  parts  of  the  valley  of 
Cauca. 

Remedios  and  Segovia. — The  climate  is  healthy,  provided 
one  lives  in  a  moderately  careful  manner.  Labour  is  cheap 
and  plentiful.  A  steamer  leaves  Barranquilla,  up  the  Rivers 
Cauca  and  Nechi,  for  Saragoza  (the  port  for  both  places) 
once  every  month.  Thence  there  is  a  good  road — part  cart 
and  part  mule — to  destination. 

Amalfi,  Yolombo,  Santo  Domingo,  San  Roque. — All 
healthy  climates.  Labour  is  plentiful.  The  communication 
is  by  steamer  from  Barranquilla  to  Puerto  Berrio  ;  thence  by 
train  to  rail  head  (Estacion  Sofia)  and  thence  over  good  mule 
roads  to  the  towns  named. 

Santa  Rosa  and  Yarumal. — Climate  is  good  in  both  places. 
Labour  is  plentiful.  The  way  to  Santa  Rosa  is  by  steamer 
from  Barranquilla  to  Puerto  Berrio,  thence  by  train  to 
Estacion  Sofia,  thence  by  good  mule  road  to  Yarumito,  and 
thence  over  fair  mule  roads  to  Santa  Rosa.  A  passenger 
would  need  between  four  and  five  days  on  mule  back  to  reach 


MINING  AND  MINERALS  121 

Santa  Rosa  from  the  rail  head.  For  Yarumal  a  steamer 
must  be  taken  at  Barranquilla  up  the  River  Cauca  as  far 
as  Valdivia  and  thence  over  a  passable  mule  road  for  two  or 
three  days  to  destination. 

Caceres. — Climate  is  malarial.  Labour  is  cheap  and  fairly 
plentiful.  Communication  is  by  steamer  from  Barranquilla  up 
the  Rivers  Cauca  and  Nechi  to  Saragoza  and  thence  on  mule 
for  two  to  three  days  over  poor  roads  to  the  mining  district. 

Titiribi. — Climate  is  healthy.  Labour  cheap  and 
plentiful.  Communication  is  by  steamer  from  Barranquilla 
to  Puerto  Berrio,  thence  by  rail  to  Estacion  Sofia  and  thence 
to  Titiribi  via.  Medellin  over  good  roads — part  mule  and  part 
cart. 

Anori,  Zea,  Rivers  Porce  and  Nechi. — Anori  has  a 
healthy  climate,  while  Zea  and  the  Rivers  Porce  and  Nechi 
are  malarial.  Communication  is  by  steamer  from  Barran- 
quilla up  the  Rivers  Cauca  and  Nechi  to  Saragoza,  and  thence 
over  poor  mule  roads  to  destination. 

Andes. — Climate  is  healthy.  Labour  plentiful.  Com- 
munication by  steamer  from  Barranquilla  to  Puerto  Berrio, 
thence  by  rail  to  Estaci6n  Sofia,  thence  over  good  mule  roads 
via  Medellin  to  destination.  In  all,  about  five  to  six  days 
on  mule  back. 

Sonson. — Climate  very  healthy.  Labour  is  cheap  and 
plentiful.  The  communication  is  by  steamer  from  Barran- 
quilla to  Puerto  Triunfo,  which  is  a  little  above  Puerto 
Berrio,  thence  over  a  bad  mule  road  of  about  65  miles  to 
Sonson.  I  am  given  to  understand  that  the  road  is  being 
repaired.  An  alternative  route  is  by  steamer  to  Puerto 
Berrio  and  thence  to  Medellin,  from  which  place  there  is  a 
good  mule  road  to  Sonson.  The  distance  from  Medellin  to 
Sonson  is  about  60  miles,  or  two  to  two-and-a-half  days  on 
mule  back. 

Manizales. — Climate  is  healthy.  Labour  plentiful. 
Communication  by  steamer  from  Barranquilla  to  Honda 
and  thence  over  good  mule  roads  to  Manizales. 

Caramanta,  Valparaiso,  Marmato,  Supia,  Rio  Sucio. — 
Caramanta,  Marmato  and  Rio  Sucio  are  healthy  places, 
whilst  Valparaiso  and  Supia  are  malarial.  Labour  is  plentiful 
in  the  whole  district.     The  communication  is  by  steamer 


122  COLOMBIA 

from  Barranquilla  to  Puerto  Berrio,  thence  by  rail  to  Estacion 
Sofia,  thence  by  good  mule  roads  to  the  different  towns 
mentioned. 

The  terms  good  and  bad,  as  applied  to  roads,  are,  of  course, 
relative,  for  in  these  mountainous  regions  a  reasonably  safe 
mule  track  is  generally  all  that  can  be  hoped  for. 

Timbers  used  in  Mining. — The  following  timbers, 
which  are  usually  abundant,  are  generally  used  for 
mining  purposes. 


B.W.  in  Lbs. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Aguatillo  (Laurus  Carboms)    . 

.     451 

0.43 

Amarillo  de  Pefia  (Persea) 

.     595 

0.66 

Arenillo  (Laurinea) 

.      550 

0.52 

Chicala  (Tecoma  Spectabilis)    . 

.     889 

0.91 

Dinde  {Madura  Tinctoria) 

.      949 

0.69 

Gualanday  {Jacaranda  Gualanday) 

.      397 

0.53 

Guayacan  {Leguminosa) 

.      763 

1.30 

Mario  (Calophyllum  Mariae)    . 

.     610 

0.68 

Zenascuro  (Carola  Augusta)    . 

.     499 

0.46 

Mining  Laws. — The  mining  laws  of  Colombia  are 
quite  liberal,  though  there  is  some  reason  to  complain 
of  the  delays  involved  before  securing  ratification  of 
surveys  and  titles.  In  some  matters  the  Government 
reserves  special  rights,  as  in  the  monopolies  of  emeralds 
and  salt,  the  inheritance  of  the  old  Spanish  crown  mines 
and  districts.  Any  one  may  denounce  a  mine,  and  after 
surveying  and  receiving  a  ratification  and  licence,  for 
which  quite  small  fees  are  charged,  the  minerals  can  be 
worked,  subject  to  moderate  annual  dues.  Under 
certain  circumstances  it  is  possible  to  denounce  mines  not 
only  on  public  lands,  but  on  private  property.  But 
according  to  a  law  passed  in  1913,  oil  wells  discovered 
on  lands  belonging  to  the  State,  whether  waste  lands  or 
otherwise,  are  not  transferred  by  the  adj  udication  of  such 
lands  to  private  individuals  or  Corporations,  but  remain 


MINING  AND  MINERALS  123 

the  property  of  the  State.  And  mines  on  land  belonging 
to  Educational  or  Charitable  Institutions  cannot  be 
denounced  without  the  sanction  of  the  owners.  In  any 
case  facilities  are  always  granted  for  access  to  the  claims, 
and,  moreover,  the  claimant  is  granted  preferential 
rights  to  the  adjudication  of  adjoining  plots  of  public 
lands  required  for  the  exploitation  of  the  mine.  Two 
drawbacks  to  the  liberality  of  these  laws  rather  impede 
mining  developments  in  the  country.  When  once  a 
denounced  mine  has  been  surveyed  and  the  fees  paid, 
it  becomes  the  property  of  the  licensee,  whether  it  be 
worked  or  not,  and  the  first  successful  claimant  has 
prior  claims  as  to  water-rights.  The  result  of  this  is 
that  many  people  take  up  mining  claims  purely  with 
speculative  intentions,  paying  the  small  fees  and  taxes 
while  awaiting  an  opportune  moment  to  sell  their  claims. 
In  this  way  much  valuable  mineralised  land  is  held  up, 
owing  to  the  excessive  demands  of  persons  unable  or 
unwilling  to  work  the  claims  themselves.  There  are  no 
hampering  restrictions  as  regards  foreigners. 

A  few  of  the  more  recent  enactments  by  Congress  or 
Executive  Decree  are  set  out  here  in  tabular  form. 

Law  21  of  1907 

Authorises  the  Government  to  assume  the  exclusive  right 
to  export  platinum,  palladium,  irridium,  rhodium,  osmium 
and  ruthenium,  as  well  as  all  radio-active  minerals,  to  issue 
new  rules  for  the  exploitation  of  these  metals,  and  to  offer 
rewards  for  the  discovery  of  new  deposits. 

Authorises  change  in  the  tax  on  emerald  mines.  See 
above,  under  paragraph  on  emerald  mining. 

Declares  that  copper  may  be  denounced  like  the  previous 
metals  ;  landowners  being  allowed  one  year  to  make  good 
their  mining  rights  in  accordance  with  the  general  laws  ; 


124 


COLOMBIA 


and  fixes  the  royalties  payable  at  half  those  payable  on 
previous  metals. 

Royalties  : 

For  denouncing  a  gold  or  silver  mine         . .  $0.50 

Grant  deed       ,,  ,,  ,,  . .  $4.00 

Annual  royalty  for  rock  mine  for  each  52  sq. 

kilometres  (20.072  sq.  miles)         ..  ..  $1.00 

Annual  royalty  for  alluvial  mine     . .  . .  $1.00 

By  paying  in  one  sum  twice  the  amount  that 
according  to  law  21  of  1867  should  be  paid 
for  20  years,  the  owner  can  acquire  the 
property  of  the  mine  in  a  permanent  form. 
No  contract  for  exploitation  of  mines  of  coal, 
asphalt,  petroleum,  or  gas,  entered  into  with 
the  Government  is  valid  unless  sanctioned  by 
Congress. 

Law  72  of  1910 

Declares  that  the  platinum  mines  can  be  denounced. 

No  grants  to  be  made  in  Choco  until  the  laws  are  reformed. 

The  Platinum  mines  in  actual  exploitation  can  be  granted 
only  to  the  actual  owners. 

Law  75  of  1913 
The  Government   reserves  the  right   to  petroleum  wells 
in  the  lands  granted  to  settlers  and  in  all  lands  belonging 
to  the  State. 

Export  of  Gold  from  1905  to  1912 


Year. 

Description. 

Kilos.  Gs. 

Value  in  Gold 
Dollars. 

Totals. 

$ 

$ 

1905 

In  bars 

2,723  500 

1,046,515 

— 

In  dust 

2,601   038 

570,420 

1,616,935 

1906 

In  bars 

5,650     - 

2,186,539 

— 

In  dust 

1,378  854 

518,926 

2,705,465 

1907 

In  bars 

5,106  573 

2,136,284 

— 

In  dust 

1,749  041 

741,457 

2,877,741 

1908 

In  bars 

6,860  555 

2,856,293 

— 

In  dust 

2,224  608 

980,581 

3,836,874 

MINING  AND  MINERALS  125 

Export  of  Gold  from  1905  to  1912 — continued 


Value  in  Gold 

Year. 

Description, 

Kilos.  Gs. 

Dollars. 

Totals. 

1909 

In  bars 

5,459  360 

$ 

2,140,912 

$ 

In  dust 

1,941   645 

847,798 

2,988,710 

1910 

In  bars 

6,190  700 

2,293,568 

— 

In  dust 

2,498  013 

1,076,384 

3,369,952 

1911 

In  bars 

7,680  427 

2,454,834 

— 

In  dust 

2,891  294 

1,296,999 

3,751,833 

1912 

In  bars 
and  dust 

19,642  372 

6,634,913 

6,634,913 

The  export  of  platinum,   which  was  valued  at  £35,119 
in  1907,  sank  to  £20,844  in  1908,  and  rose  to  over  £118,839 

in  1912. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

manufactures  and  minor  industries 

Present  Developments  and  Future 
Possibilities 

In  Colombia  high  import  duties  are  the  rule,  and  these 
are  designed  to  be  protective  as  well  as  revenue  pro- 
ducing. In  the  past,  as  at  the  present  day,  it  has  been 
the  custom  of  the  Government  to  foster  local  industries 
by  very  material  concessions.  Sometimes  this  has  taken 
the  form  of  a  guaranteed  interest  on  capital  involved 
both  in  equipping  and  establishing  factories.  More 
often  exclusive  rights  to  manufacture  in  specified  districts 
for  definite  periods,  together  with  exemption  from 
central  and  local  taxation,  freedom  from  import  duties 
on  machinery  and  raw  material  required  has  been  the 
rule.  Occasionally  money  and  land  grants  have  been 
made.  Quite  commonly  when  such  concessions  have 
been  made  the  manufacturers  are  in  their  turn  bound 
to  sell  their  goods  at  prices  ranging  from  5  to  15  per  cent, 
lower  than  the  prices  charged  for  imported  goods  of  a 
similar  character,  it  being  estimated  that  the  concessions 
granted  give  a  preference  of  from  10  to  25  per  cent,  and 
upwards  over  imported  articles.  We  may  take  the  boot 
factories  of  Cartagena  and  Barranquilla  as  examples. 
These  are  fitted  with  machinery  from  America,  and 
supplied  with  choice  leathers  and  other  raw  material 
from  England,  the  United  States  and  Germany,  free  of 
import  duties.  Their  boots  sell  at  an  average  of  2.75 
dollars  gold  for  men's,  and  2.50  for  ladies',  retail.     While 

126 


MANUFACTURES  AND  INDUSTRIES       127 

the  duties  on  imported  boots  are  80  cents  gold  per 
kilogramme  gross  weight,  plus  70  per  cent,  and  2  per  cent, 
on  the  specific  duty.  Often  valuable  Government  con- 
tracts are  also  awarded  to  local  manufacturers.  Apart 
from  this  official  fostering  of  native  industries,  it  will  be 
found  that  many  of  the  larger  business  firms  (frequently 
acting  not  only  as  importing  and  exporting  agents, 
but  also  as  bankers)  either  run  or  otherwise  finance 
industrial  enterprises.  Thus  it  is  frequently  the  case 
that  many  coffee  growers  are  merely  tenants,  or  are 
financed  by  bill  discounting  by  big  coffee  collecting  and 
exporting  firms.  The  same  conditions  prevail  in  the 
"  Panama "  hat  industry,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in 
that  of  sugar  growing  and  refining. 

Owing  to  its  influence  on  home  and  foreign  commerce 
the  textile  industry  is  probably  the  most  important 
in  all  the  manufacturing  class.  Spinning  and  weaving 
are  very  ancient  indigenous  arts,  both  wool  and  hair, 
as  well  as  some  vegetable  fibres,  having  been  used  by  the 
Indians  long  prior  to  the  Spanish  conquest.  But  it  was 
not  until  1790  that  a  priest,  Don  Cristobal  de  Restrepo, 
introduced  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton  among 
the  Antioquians.  Apparently  the  industry  persisted 
in  a  small  way,  although  almost  dormant.  At  the  present 
day  textile  factories  for  cotton  and  wool  of  considerable 
importance  are  run  at  Barranquilla,  Bogota,  Cartagena, 
Medellin,  and  Samaca.  At  Barranquilla  the  Obregon 
cotton  mill  contains  over  200  electrically  driven  British 
looms,  worked  by  women  and  boys.  Imported  British 
grey  and  coloured  yarns  are  used,  and  worked  up  into 
grey  domestics  and  coarse  coloured  drills,  about  10,000 


128  COLOMBIA 

yards  being  finished  per  day.  It  is  proposed  to  start 
in  conjunction  with  this  a  mill  to  spin  native  cotton. 
In  the  same  town  there  is  a  stocking  net  factory,  run 
with  German  capital  and  machinery,  the  yarns  (grey, 
bleached  and  coloured)  being  imported  from  England, 
Germany  or  the  United  States,  as  periodical  quotations 
may  render  advisable.  The  twenty-four  netting 
machines,  worked  by  electricity  and  attended  by  women, 
turn  out  150  dozen  under  vests,  150  men's  drawers  and 
250  pairs  of  stocking  monthly.  They  sell  at  about 
60  per  cent,  less  than  imported  goods. 

At  Cartagena  a  large  spinning  and  weaving  steam 
driven  mill  is  owned  by  the  Banco  Union,  and  has  been 
run  for  about  a  quarter  of  a  century.  Native  cotton 
is  spun  here,  the  seed  being  exported.  Coarse  yarns, 
for  grey  drilling,  are  spun,  but  a  certain  amount  is  im- 
ported. There  are  105  looms,  attended  by  160  women 
and  boys.  It  appears  that  imported  sheeting,  paying 
20  cents  gold  per  kilogramme,  plus  70  per  cent,  surtax 
and  2  per  cent,  on  the  specific  duty,  competes  severely 
with  the  local  drills.  There  is  a  stocking  net  factory, 
with  thirty-two  machines ,  at  Cartagena,  using  unbleached 
and  coloured  United  States  yarns. 

In  Bogota  there  are  several  large  and  well  equipped 
mills,  some  both  spinning  and  weaving,  for  the  production 
of  cotton  and  woollen  materials  of  a  cheap  quality, 
chiefly  intended  for  the  working  classes.  Among  the 
leading  firms  are  the  Fabrica  Nacional  de  Tejidos,  turning 
out  black  and  coloured  woollens,  and  the  Sagrada  Familia 
cotton  and  wool  spinning  and  weaving  mills. 

At  Medellin  the  largest  spinning  and  weaving  mills 


MANUFACTURES   AND  INDUSTRIES       129 

belong  to  the  Compania  Antioquena  (established  in  1905), 
which  are  worked  by  hydraulic  power  of  300  h.p.  There 
are  189  spinning  machines  with  5,328  spindles  and  290 
looms  ;  some  110  men  and  400  women  turning  out  over 
8,000  yards  of  cottons  and  woollens  per  day.  The 
Colombiena,  established  three  years  later,  also  spins 
and  weaves.  There  are  several  other  smaller 
establishments. 

At  Samaca  (Boyaca)  the  Gran  Fabrica  de  Hilados  y 
Tejidos  spins  cotton  and  wool,  and  has  about  100  looms, 
employing  some  400  hands  to  turn  out  grey  domestics 
and  drills,  native  cotton  being  used. 

Spinning  of  wool  is  very  general,  and  cottage  looms  are 
found  all  over  the  country. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  any  reliable  data  as  regards  the 
use  of  vegetable  fibres.  But  the  making  of  sacks, 
hammocks  and  shoes,  chiefly  from  hennequen  (agave) 
fibre,  is  well  developed  so  wide  apart  as  in  Santander, 
Tolima  and  Nariho.  On  the  other  hand,  much  of  the  sack- 
ing used  for  sugar  and  coffee  in  the  Atlantic  ports  is 
imported  from  England,  usually  being  of  Indian- jute. 

An  extensive  and  growing  industry  is  that  of  the 
manufacture  of  "  Panama  "  straw  hats,  which  are  made 
from  fine  palm  straw.  Among  the  centres  of  this  in- 
dustry may  be  mentioned  Atlantico,  Bolivar,  Caldas, 
El  Valle,  Huila,  Tolima  and  Narifio.  In  1912  the  exports 
of  these  came  to  about  120,000  lb.  weight,  of  a  declared 
value  of  well  over  £80,000.  But  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  hats  are  extensively  used  locally.  Of  the 
better  quality,  or  "  Sombreros  de  Suazus,"  some 
161,000  lb.,  valued  at  £151,363  were  exported. 


130  COLOMBIA 

There  is  a  considerable  export  trade  in  hides.  Tanning 
is  also  carried  on  locally,  in  a  small  way  as  a  rule,  but  on 
a  large  scale  in  Antioquia.  Only  sole  and  coarse  leather 
is  usually  turned  out,  for  boot  making  and  a  little 
harness  work.  Finer  leather  is  imported  ;  and  most 
of  the  saddles  and  harness  sets  are  made  of  agave  fibre. 

There  is  a  tanning  factory  at  Cartagena,  turning  out 
tanning  extract,  and  a  special  secret  brand,  "  Guara," 
produced  from  red  mangrove  bark,  growing  abundantly 
wild  in  the  neighbourhood.  It  is  used  locally,  and  also 
exported  to  England  and  Germany.  Both  leather 
and  tanning  offer  considerable  scope  for  enterprise,  more 
especially  as  the  breeding  of  cattle  is  bound  to  increase 
enormously  in  the  near  future. 

Of  recent  years  a  growing  percentage  of  the  vegetable 
ivory  (tagua  nut),  collected  in  the  forests,  has  been 
worked  up  in  small  local  factories  into  buttons  and 
kindred  objects. 

Tobacco,  of  local  growth,  is  very  widely  manufactured, 
factories  for  the  production  of  cigars  and  cigarettes 
existing  in  a  great  many  towns  up  and  down  the  country. 
This  branch  of  manufacture  assumes  important  propor- 
tions in  the  Cauca  valley,  and  also  in  Tolima,  in  which 
department  Ambalema  is  the  principal  centre  of  the 
industry,  about  120,030  cigars  being  turned  out  there 
weekly.  The  former  export  trade  in  tobacco  and  cigars 
was  large,  but  is  now  almost  entirely  confined  to  Germany, 
which  country,  however,  is  steadily  increasing  its  orders. 

Cement  is  now  being  produced  on  a  fairly  big  scale, 
the  two  leading  factories  being  found  in  the  Department 
of  Cundinamarca.     One  of  these  is  devoted  mainly  to  the 


MANUFACTURES   AND  INDUSTRIES       131 

manufacture  of  tiles  and  slabs  for  paving,  cisterns  and 
water  conduits,  and  the  other  to  the  production  of  cement 
in  powder  and  in  blocks  for  building  purposes.  This 
has  already  had  a  marked  effect  in  reducing  the  demand 
for  imported  cement. 

In  connection  with  the  food  industries,  nearly  every 
town  of  any  importance  has  several  mineral  water 
factories.  Good  aerating  and  refrigerating  machinery  is 
in  steady  demand.  Breweries,  generally  producing  ales 
of  the  lager  type,  flourish  in  several  districts.  Sugar 
calls  forth  various  classes  of  factories,  from  refineries 
to  distilleries.  The  machinery  used  is  often  of  primitive 
type  and  local  manufacture,  but  a  few  well-equipped 
establishments  are  met  with.  Besides  the  manufacture 
of  fermented  beverages  from  the  sugar  juice,  there  is  a 
large  and  growing  export  of  alcohol,  about  40°  strength, 
much  of  it  going  to  England.  Chocolate  factories, 
some  quite  large  and  expensively  equipped,  are  com- 
monly met  with  in  most  large  towns,  and  all  seem  to 
prosper.     The  demand  for  sweets  of  all  kinds  is  large. 

Milling  is,  speaking  generally,  still  in  a  primitive 
condition,  but  is  bound  to  develop  without  much  delay, 
for  conditions  are  extremely  favourable.  At  Barran- 
quilla  there  are  two  flour  mills,  one  at  Cartagena,  one 
at  Medellin,  three  at  Bogota  and  one  at  Tunja.  These 
are  all  well  equipped.  There  is  a  heavy  import  duty 
on  flour,  and  also,  in  some  cases  an  internal,  or  depart- 
mental tax.  The  import  duty  is  8  cents  gold  per  kilo- 
gramme gross  weight,  plus  70  per  cent,  surtax  and  2  per 
cent,  on  the  specific  duty.  The  inter-departmental 
tax  between  Atlantico  and  Antioquia  is  8  dollars  gold 


132  COLOMBIA 

per  250  lb.,  and  between  Atlantico  and  Cundinamarca 
16  dollars.  At  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena  wheat  on 
an  average  costs  1.45  dollars  gold  per  bushel  of  60  lb., 
plus  a  duty  of  about  1  cent  per  2  lb.  Flour  sells  at  18 
dollars  gold  per  280  lbs.,  and  the  bran  fetching  locally 
a  dollar  gold  for  1001b.,  and  equally  good  prices  in 
Trinidad,  where  most  of  it  goes,  pays  the  running 
expenses.  It  is  extremely  probable  that  in  the  interior 
profits  are  not  so  large.  But  it  must  be  remembered 
that  in  many  places,  especially  on  the  Pacific  coast,  flour 
has  to  be  imported,  in  spite  of  the  high  duty. 

Coco-nut  palms  and  ground  nuts  are  almost  entirely 
neglected  from  the  industrial  point  of  view,  though  both 
products  supply  some  of  the  fats  required  by  the  soap 
and  candle  factories  existing  in  most  of  the  large  towns. 
For  there  is  a  big  consumption  of  both  commodities. 

Commerce,  both  as  regards  imports  and  exports,  is 
largely  in  the  hands  of  merchants  at  the  seaports,  with 
agents  in  the  interior,  who  act  as  commission  agents, 
as  well  as  direct  shippers.  It  has,  however,  been  found 
profitable  for  firms  to  open  branches,  or  appoint  direct 
agents  after  personal  interviews.  Circularising  is  of 
little  value,  and  ordinary  commercial  travelling  hardly 
more  so.  At  Barranquilla  import  and  export  trade  is 
mainly  in  the  hands  of  German  firms,  though  other 
foreigners  have  a  share.  At  Cartagena,  Colombians 
share  the  trade  with  a  few  Syrian  firms.  At  Bogota 
it  is  again  the  Colombian  element  that  prevails,  with  a 
few  English,  American  and  other  foreign  houses.  At 
Medellin  the  native  element  also  prevails,  both  manu- 
facturers   and    merchants    being    active    and   wealthy. 


MANUFACTURES  AND  INDUSTRIES       133 

At  Manizales,  Ibague  and  Bucaramanga,  we  again  have 
Colombian  firms  in  the  ascendancy.  At  Cali  there  are 
also  Italians  and  Germans  ;  and  at  San  Jose  de  Cucuta 
Italians,  German,  Syrians  and  Venezuelans.  All  the 
above-named  towns  are  populous,  in  some  degree  manu- 
facturing places,  and  all  busy  centres  of  commerce, 
both  for  the  collection  and  distribution  of  goods.  Many 
of  the  native  products,  and  this  applies  practically  to 
agricultural  products  and  cattle,  are  disposed  of  at  the 
great  periodical  fairs  held  in  the  commercial  centres. 
These  are  usually  attended  by  local  merchants  or  their 
representatives. 

It  is  officially  stated  that  all  travellers'  samples  in 
small  pieces  of  no  value  are  admitted  free  of  duty  up  to 
25  kilogs.  Samples  of  commercial  value  pay  duty 
according  to  their  classification,  but  may  be  re-exported 
up  to  1,000  kilos,  within  two  years  from  the  date  of 
importation.  These  must  be  accompanied  by  a  consular 
invoice,  which  should  be  made  out  in  the  name  of  the 
traveller.  If  no  consular  invoice  is  produced  twice  the 
amount  of  the  consular  dues,  plus  10  per  cent.,  as  a  fine, 
will  be  charged.  Travellers  wishing  to  re-export  samples 
must  pay  the  duplicated  consular  dues  and  fine,  if  incurred, 
and  give  a  bond  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Administrator 
of  Customs  that  the  duties  applicable  will  be  paid,  plus 
interest  at  the  rate  of  2  per  cent,  monthly  in  case  the 
re-export  be  not  effected  within  two  years  ;  the  Customs 
manifest,  the  acceptance  of  the  bond  for  the  duties, 
must  be  kept  by  the  traveller  for  presentation  to  the 
Administrator  of  the  Customs  in  the  port  whence  he 
leaves  the  country,  in  order  that  his  samples  may  be 

io — (2248) 


134  COLOMBIA 

checked ;  when  this  is  done,  the  Administrator  will 
cancel  the  bond.  If  the  samples  are  not  re-exported 
within  two  years,  or  if  the  import  duties  have  not  been 
paid,  the  Administrator  of  Customs  at  the  port  of  entry 
will  collect  the  duty  in  terms  of  the  guarantee. 

As  already  stated,  when  dealing  with  Inland  Com- 
munication and  Transport,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
for  any  shipper  dealing  with  Colombia  to  pay  the  greatest 
care  to  packing.  Small,  well  secured  packages  must  be 
the  rule.  All  weights  and  measurements  must  be  given 
according  to  the  metric  system. 


CHAPTER   XV 

IMPORT   AND   EXPORT  TRADE 

As  already  explained  in  the  last  Chapter,  the  great  bulk 
of  Colombian  trade  passes  through  the  hands  of  large 
firms  of  importers  and  exporters,  for  the  most  part  of 
Colombian  origin.  Over  90  per  cent,  of  the  import 
trade  is  carried  out  on  current  account,  that  is  to  say, 
six  months'  credit  with  interest  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent, 
for  European  firms,  and  at  three  to  four  months'  credit 
at  the  same  interest  for  United  States  traders.  British 
traders  usually  grant  ninety  days  or  at  sight  ;  German, 
French,  and  Spanish  firms  six  months  or  at  sight,  and 
those  of  the  United  States  either  thirty  days'  drafts,  or 
cash  on  delivery  with  discounts.  Importing  firms  usually 
allow  fifteen  days'  credit  for  provisions  sold  in  the  port 
towns,  thirty  days  for  outside  districts,  and  for  hardware 
sent  up  country  from  three  to  four  months.  But  there 
are  considerable  variations  in  practice  ;  thus  Medellin 
merchants  customarily  grant  their  clients  promissory 
notes  payable  at  six,  twelve,  and  eighteen  months.  Long 
credits  are  necessary  in  a  country  of  such  immense 
distances  and  limited  means  for  quick  and  cheap 
transport. 

Statistics  as  to  imports  and  exports  are  very  deficient, 
not  only  owing  to  the  delay  in  presenting  them,  but  the 
constant  changes  introduced  into  the  method  of  tabulating 
the  information.  However,  it  would  appear  from  such 
data  as  is  available  that  for  the  thirty  years,  1880-1909, 

135 


136 


COLOMBIA 


the  imports  remained  practically  stationary  at  a  little 
under  £2,500,000,  and  the  exports  at  a  little  over 
£3,000,000.  There  was  a  slight  drop  in  each  case  in  the 
last  year.  But  in  1910  the  imports  rose  to  £3,405,127 
and  the  exports  to  £3,557,361  ;  and  in  1911  the  imports 
were  valued  at  £3,621,773,  and  the  exports  at  £4,475,180. 
As  regards  the  countries  of  origin,  taking  the  four 
leading  manufacturing  and  commercial  nations,  it  is 
found  that  for  the  years  1902-1906  the  United  Kingdom 
sent  30.84  per  cent.,  the  United  States  31.60,  France 
23.44  and  from  Germany  13.98  per  cent.  For  the  years 
1907-1911  the  percentages  were  :  United  Kingdom  36.16, 
United  States  27.54,  France  22.28,  Germany  13.88. 
Thus  between  the  two  periods  there  was  a  gain  of  5.32 
per  cent,  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  losses  of  4.06 
for  the  United  States,  1.16  for  France  and  0.10  Germany. 
While  there  is  a  gain  on  the  total  trade  for  British  goods, 
it  will  be  seen  later  on  that  ground  has  been  lost  by  the 
United  Kingdom  in  certain  classes. 

The  latest  complete  statistics  available  are  for  the  year 
1911— 


Imports 

£ 

From — 

United  Kingdom 

1,167,757 

United  States     . . 

1,080,995 

Germany 

648,527 

France 

343,749 

Spain 

79,546 

Panama 

6,358 

Other  Countries 

294,838 

Total 

£3,821,760 

IMPORT  AND  EXPORT  TRADE 


137 


These  are  the  corrected  figures  of  the  Director- General 
of  Statics,  which  differ  slightly  from  those  given  by  the 
British  Board  of  Trade. 


Details  of  Imports 

Textiles — 

i 

United  Kingdom 

840,543 

Germany 

238,905 

United  States 

217,989 

France 

199,558 

Spain 

19,729 

Panama 

1,388 

Other  Countries 

107,014 

Food-stuffs  and  Condiments — 

United  States 

275,677 

Germany 

108,026 

United  Kingdom 

38,265 

France 

12,404 

Panama 

883 

Other  Countries 

55,519 

Metals — 

United  States 

135,925 

United  Kingdom 

130,500 

Germany 

99,441 

France 

18,407 

Panama 

1,865 

Spain 

1,158 

Other  Countries 

15,913 

Drugs  and  Medicines — 

United  States 

65,566 

France 

30,801 

Germany 

25,582 

United  Kingdom 

27,802 

Spain 

271 

Panama 

23 

Other  Countries 

8,395 

Railway  and  other  Carriages  an 

d  Wagons — 

United  States 

88,222 

United  Kingdom 

30,221 

Germany 

6,162 

France 

1,793 

Spain 

667 

Panama 

74 

Other  Countries  . . 

12,084 

138 


COLOMBIA 

Materials  for  Arts  and  Trades — 

i 

United  States 

103,697 

United  Kingdom 

16,995 

Germany 

11,279 

France 

2,383 

Spain 

279 

Panama 

50 

Other  Countries 

5,908 

Alcoholic  and  other  Beverages — 

France 

39,211 

Spain 

35,060 

United  Kingdom 

15,846 

Germany 

14,458 

United  States 

8,411 

Panama 

97 

Other  Countries 

12,835 

Ceramics — 

Germany 

34,588 

United  States 

26,139 

France 

8,225 

United  Kingdom 

7,888 

Spain 

384 

Panama 

209 

Other  Countries 

14,264 

Paper  and  Cardboard — 

United  States 

38,138 

Germany 

29,029 

France 

9,070 

Spain 

3,998 

United  Kingdom 

3,966 

Panama 

191 

Other  Countries 

6,365 

Lighting  and  Fuel — 

United  States 

39,314 

Germany 

9,488 

United  Kingdom 

9,080 

Spain 

337 

Panama 

58 

France 

2,975 

Other  Countries 

13.035 

Agriculture  and  Mining  Products- 

United  Kingdom 

28,686 

United  States 

26,319 

Germany 

3,361 

France 

260 

Panama 

73 

IMPORT  AND  EXPORT  TRADE 


139 


Agriculture,  etc. — {contd.) —  £ 

Spain          . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  11 

Other  Countries   . .          . .          . .          . .  5,913 

Hides  and  Skins,  and  manufactures  therefrom — 

United  States        32,259 

France 11,193 

Germany 9,339 

United  Kingdom              6,823 

Spain          1,635 

Panama     . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  38 

Other  Countries   . .          . .          . .          . .  803 

Woods — 

United  States 17,553 

Germany 13,990 

Spain          5,067 

France 4,237 

United  Kingdom              1,589 

Panama     . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  878 

Other  Countries   ..          ..          ..          ..  1,961 

Oils  and  Greases — 

United  States 10,392 

United  Kingdom              3,334 

Germany    . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  3,321 

France        . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  1 ,467 

Spain          . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  315 

Panama     . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  209 

Other  Countries 2,324 

Varnishes,  Colours,  and  Inks — 

Germany 8,386 

United  States 7,049 

United  Kingdom              3,121 

France 1,013 

Panama     . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  8 

Spain          . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  4 

Other  Countries   ..          ..          ..          ..  1,287 

Electrical  Appliances — 

United  States 10,079 

Germany   . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  5,964 

United  Kingdom              2,061 

France        . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  748 

Spain         . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  2 

Other  Countries 1,163 

Perfumery  and  Soap — 

United  States 10,373 

France 4,265 


140 


COLOMBIA 

Perfumery  and  Soap — (contd.) — 

i 

United  Kingdom 

2,438 

Germany 

2,028 

Panama 

4 

Other  Countries 

389 

Rubber,  Celluloid,  etc. — 

Germany 

6,019 

France 

4,459 

United  States 

3,889 

United  Kingdom 

1,859 

Spain 

7 

Other  Countries 

667 

Musical  Instruments — 

Germany 

4,865 

United  States 

2,962 

France 

2,326 

United  Kingdom 

388 

Panama 

88 

Other  Countries 

523 

Tortoise-shell,  Horn,  etc. — 

Germany 

4,513 

France 

4,362 

United  Kingdom 

812 

United  States 

301 

Panama 

16 

Other  Countries 

695 

Firearms,  accessories,  and  ammunition- 

Germany 

3,550 

United  States 

2,720 

Spain 

1,007 

France 

945 

United  Kingdom 

880 

Other  Countries 

645 

Explosives  and  Combustibles — 

United  States 

4,383 

United  Kingdom 

2,147 

Germany 

514 

Panama 

421 

France 

18 

Other  Countries 

201 

Live  Animals — 

United  States 

164 

France 

104 

United  Kingdom 

40 

Other  Countries   . . 

1,128 

IMPORT  AND  EXPORT  TRADE 


141 


Miscellaneous — 
United  States 
France 
Germany    •  • 
United  "Kingdom 
Spain 
Panama 
Other  Countries 


To  United  States 
United  Kingdom 
Germany   .  . 
France 
Spain 
Panama 
Other  Countries 


Exports 


Total 


/ 

13,478 

3,407 

1,733 

864 

227 

2 

26,040 


£ 

2,449,799 

919,227 

382,070 

153,839 

23,931 

8,598 

537,718 

£4,475,182 


Details  of  Exports 
Live  Animals — 

Panama 

United  States 

United  Kingdom 

Other  Countries 
Animal  Products  (chiefly  hides) — 

United  States 

United  Kingdom 

Germany 

Spain 

France 

Panama 

Other  Countries 
Vegetable  Products  (coffee,  bananas,  rub 
ber,  leaf  tobacco,  etc.) — 

United  States 

United  Kingdom 

Germany    . . 

France 

Spain 

Panama 

Other  Countries 


£ 

1,696 

911 

219 

15,743 

210,023 
51,367 
41,262 
15,148 
13,527 
21 
60,734 


661,711 

422,515 

305,287 

24,981 

8,729 

3,019 

448,817 


142 


COLOMBIA 


Manufactured  Goods  (chiefly  straw  hats)- 

United  States 

175,436 

United  Kingdom 

54,618 

Germany 

25,825 

Panama 

3,776 

France 

17 

Other  Countries 

9,818 

Mineral  Products — 

United  States 

401,709 

United  Kingdom 

374,467 

France 

114,866 

Germany 

9,145 

Panama 

83 

Spain 

54 

Other  Countries 

1,228 

Miscellaneous — 

Germany 

46 

France 

31 

United  Kingdom 

16 

United  States 

8 

Other  Countries 

1,388 

Exports  for  1912 
The   returns    prepared    by  the   Colombian   Director- 
General  of  Statics  for  1912,  under  a  somewhat  different 
classification  to  that  given  above  is  as  f  ollows — 


£ 

Gold           

..     1,326,983 

Platinum 

118,838 

Coffee 

. .     3,355,581 

Hides 

532,344 

Rubber 

147,285 

Bananas 

399,399 

Palm  Straw  Hats 

83,585 

Fine    Palm    Straw   Hats    (sombreros 

de 

suazos) 

151,363 

Tobacco  Leaf 

88,492 

Tagua  (Ivory  Nuts) 

150,941 

Timber 

3,058 

£6,257,869 

IMPORT  AND  EXPORT  TRADE  143 

The  exports  under  "  Vegetable  Matters "  include 
coffee,  cocoa,  sugar,  tobacco,  bananas,  "  alligator " 
pears,  pineapples  and  other  fruits,  balsams,  divi-divi 
and  mangrove  bark,  raicilla  (ipecachuana),  and  other 
medicinal  herbs,  palm  nuts  (tagua),  timber  and  plants. 
The  "  Animal  Matters "  include  live  animals,  hides, 
horns,  goat  and  alligator  skins,  tortoise-shell,  etc. 

As  regards  Imports,  the  Textile  Class  includes  a  large 
number  of  items.  There  is  an  increasing  demand  for 
yarns.  Those  from  the  United  Kingdom  rose  from 
£1,000  in  1903  to  £84,000  in  1911.  For  the  same  years 
yarn  imports  from  Germany  (for  the  port  of  Barranquilla 
alone)  £376  and  £3,940 ;  from  the  United  States  £103 
and  £2,007.  There  is  a  small  import  from  France. 
There  is  a  considerable  and  growing  demand  for  manu- 
factured cotton  goods.  In  1911  the  imports  from  the 
United  Kingdom  were :  piece  goods  £531,000,  other 
goods  £88,000 ;  from  the  United  States  :  piece  goods 
£183,000,  other  goods  £21,000;  Germany:  piece  goods 
£55,000,  other  goods  £42,000 ;  France,  all  sorts :  £69. 
Taking  the  period  1907-1911  it  is  found  that  Great 
Britain  has  made  a  gain  of  25  per  cent.,  Germany  of 
17  per  cent.,  France  about  1  per  cent.,  while  the  United 
States  has  receded  by  15  per  cent.  Prints  are  in  good 
demand  and  fetch  remunerative  prices.  While  in  1909 
62  per  cent,  of  the  prints  came  from  the  United  Kingdom 
and  34  per  cent,  from  the  United  States,  these  percentages 
were  respectively  57  and  42  in  1911.  The  quick  delivery 
from  stock  favours  the  United  States  manufacturers 
in  this  line.  White  bleached  piece  goods  passed  through 
the  Barranquilla  Custom  House  in   1911   to  the  value 


144  COLOMBIA 

of  £76,900,  of  which  about  98  per  cent,  came  from  the 
United  Kingdom.  Pieces  20  yd.  long  and  18  and  36  in. 
wide  are  favoured.  Drills  through  the  same  port  were 
valued  at  £68,100,  of  which  22  per  cent,  came  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  33  from  Italy,  and  24  from  Germany, 
whereas  our  imports  in  1909  amounted  to  36  per  cent, 
of  the  total.  We  are  losing  ground  to  Italy,  Germany 
and  the  United  States.  Unbleached  goods  were  im- 
ported to  the  value  of  £27,300  in  1911,  as  against  £49,600 
in  the  previous  year,  a  fall  no  doubt  due  to  competition 
by  local  mills.  In  1909  55  per  cent,  came  from  the 
United  States  and  44  per  cent,  from  the  United  Kingdom  ; 
the  percentages  are  now  respectively  50  and  49,  but 
there  is  a  strong  objection  to  the  heavy  English  sizing. 
Of  the  cotton  lace  imported  about  60  per  cent,  comes 
from  Great  Britain  and  about  80  per  cent,  of  the 
"  Unclassified  Cotton  Manufactories. "  The  linen 
imports  are  small  and  diminishing  ;  they  are  chiefly 
from  Great  Britain,  but  made-up  linen  clothing  from 
France. 

Woollen  yarns  are  imported  to  a  small  extent,  chiefly 
from  the  United  Kingdom.  Woollen  fabrics  were 
imported  through  Barranquilla  to  the  value  of  £50,900 
in  1909,  £96,500  in  1910  and  £70,000  in  1911.  The 
percentages  for  the  three  years  were  respectively : 
United  Kingdom,  26,  27  and  19  ;  France,  39,  37,  37  ; 
Germany,  24,  24,  25  ;  Italy,  7,  6,  and  11.  Red  flannel 
and  white  blankets  are  mostly  of  British  make  ;  but 
black  and  coloured  checked  woollen  shawls  came  chiefly 
from  France  and  Germany. 

Of  wearing  apparel,  France  sends  over  50  per  cent., 


IMPORT  AND  EXPORT  TRADE  145 

Germany  being  the  next  largest  exporter,  while    great 
Britain  only  sends  12  per  cent. 

The  empty  sack  trade  is  a  big  one,  the  value  averaging 
about  £21,000  annually,  the  demand  being  for  packing 
coffee,  salt,  tagua  and  divi-divi,  etc.  These  mostly  come 
from  Calcutta  and  Dundee.  There  is  a  considerable  local 
competition  from  the  makers  of  "henequen"  and  "  fique" 
(agave)  fibre,  and  the  United  States  has  also  improved 
its  position  from  about  £1,000  in  1909  to  £4,000  in  1911. 

In  machinery  the  United  States  holds  the  lead.  The 
imports  in  1910  were  £50,000  from  the  United  States, 
£44,000  from  the  United  Kingdom,  £14,000  from  Ger- 
many and  £6,000  from  France.  In  1911  the  respective 
totals  were  £151,000,  £49,000,  £12,000  and  £7,000. 

Of  agricultural  machinery,  the  United  States  supply 
the  small  demand  for  ploughs  (£1,700)  ;  the  United 
Kingdom  for  hoes  (£3,300)  ;  and  of  the  £95,000  worth  of 
machetes  imported  through  Barranquilla,  Germany 
supplied  nearly  60  per  cent.,  and  Great  Britain  27  per 
cent.  The  mining  shovels  come  from  Great  Britain; 
the  picks  from  the  United  States,  Great  Britain  and 
Germany.  Textile  machinery  is  mostly  of  British 
make  ;  printing  machinery  comes  from  the  United  States. 
Of  implements  and  tools  the  United  Kingdom  supplied 
£14,000  in  1909  and  £17,000  in  1911  ;  the  United  States 
£17,000  and  £19,000  ;  and  Germany  £7,000  and  £11,000. 
Germany  supplies  most  of  the  cutlery  and  the  enamelled 
ironware.  Barbed  wire  was  imported  through  Barran- 
quilla to  the  amount  of  £13,000,  mostly  from  the  United 
States. 

Practically  the  whole  of  the  trade  in  electrical  goods 


146  COLOMBIA 

and  apparatus  is  in  the  hands  of  United  States  and 
German  manufacturers,  this  including  telegraphic  and 
telephonic  material,  although  the  Bogotan  telephone 
system  is  run  by  an  English  company.  There  are 
undoubtedly  enormous  possibilities  in  the  country  for 
the  development  of  hydro-electric  schemes,  both  for 
municipal  and  industrial  purposes. 

Another  branch  of  trade  well  worth  careful  attention 
and  fostering  is  the  horseless  vehicle  business.  In 
most  of  the  big  towns,  and  wherever  a  few  miles  of 
passable  high  roads  exist,  the  automobile  is  gaining  in 
favour,  both  for  private  use  and  as  means  for  public, 
passenger  and  goods,  conveyance.  As  the  policy  of 
recent  governments,  and  of  the  departmental  adminis- 
trations, is  to  promote  the  construction  of  roads  and 
bridges,  this  appreciation  of  automotive  cars  and  wagons 
is  bound  to  grow.  It  is,  therefore,  to  be  noted  that  so 
far  the  second  class,  low-priced  cars  of  the  United  States 
are  preferred  to  the  better  built  but  more  expensive 
British  vehicles,  the  reason  being  that  purchasers  prefer 
to  run  their  cars  for  a  few  seasons,  then  dispose  of  them 
and  procure  newer  models. 

The  leather  manufactured  goods  trade  is  also  deserving 
of  attention.  According  to  the  Colombian  official 
statistics  as  given  above  the  imports  of  "  hides  and  skins 
and  manufactures  therefrom"  in  1911  was  £62,900,  but 
the  figures  given  by  the  British  Board  of  Trade  on  the 
authority  of  the  Barranquilla  Custom  House  for 
"  leather  and  leather  manufactures  "  are  £59,000  in  1909, 
£69,000  in  1910  and  £85,000  in  1911.  Of  this  last  named 
sum,  £6,000  only  went  to  the  United  Kingdom,  £41,000 


IMPORT  AND  EXPORT  TRADE  147 

to  the  United  States,  £28,000  to  France  and  £10,000  to 
Germany.  It  appears  that  the  chief  sources  of  supply 
are  :  for  leather  belting,  the  United  States  ;  harness,  the 
United  States,  France  and  the  United  Kingdom  ;  boots, 
France  ;  fancy  goods,  France  and  Germany.  Saddlery 
is  almost  entirely  of  local  manufacture.  There  is  an 
appreciation  of  good  leather  articles,  but  the  market 
cannot  afford  to  pay  high  prices. 

There  is  a  genuine  demand  for  strong,  tasteful  binding 
(both  leather  and  cloth)  at  medium  prices. 

In  estimating  the  possible  value  of  the  Colombian 
market,  it  must  be  remembered  that  at  the  present  rate 
of  imports  the  people,  on  the  latest  census  basis,  only 
spend  a  little  over  15s.  a  head  on  foreign  goods.  It  is 
almost  certain  that  a  closer  study  of  the  local  needs 
as  regards  prices,  terms,  and  styles  would  sensibly 
augment  this  per  capita  expenditure  in  the  near  future. 
But  the  Colombian  market  is  one  whose  idiosyncrasies 
particularly  demand  sympathetic  consideration. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

LIST   OF   IMPORTANT   TOWNS 


ABEJORRAL,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  45'  N.  lat.  ;  founded 
in  1811  ;  pop.  17,500.  Centre  of  an  agricultural  district. 
Salt  mines  in  the  neighbourhood. 

ACANDI,  cap.  of  the  Uraba  Comisaria. 

AGUADAS,  prov.  of  Salamina,  dep.  of  Caldas,  5°  35'  N.  lat.  ; 
7,255  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  26,400.  A  leading  centre 
for  the  production  of  "  Panama  "  straw  hats. 

AIPE,  prov.  of  Neiva,  dep.  of  Huila,  3°  22'  N.  lat.  ;  1,214  ft. 
above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,600.  Cattle  and  agricultural  centre. 
Many  remarkable  rocks  with  hieroplyphic  inscriptions  are 
found  here. 

ALMAGUER,  prov.  of  Caldas,  dep.  of  Cauca,  1°  54'  N.  lat.  ; 
7,434  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,900.  Agricultural  and 
mining  centre. 

AMAGA,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  5°  56'  N.  lat.  ;  4,517  ft.  above 
sea-level ;  pop.  6,700.  Agricultural  and  mining  centre.  In 
addition  to  rich  gold  mines  there  are  coal  mines  and  an 
important  foundry. 

AMALFI,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  45'  N.  lat.  ;  founded  in 
1840 ;  pop.  10,400.  Situated  on  a  plain,  surrounded  by 
forests.  Enjoys  a  pleasant  climate.  Is  the  centre  of  an 
agricultural  and  important  gold-mining  district. 

AMAIME,  prov.  of  Ibague,  dep.  of  Tolima ;  pop.  4,000. 
Ten  gold  and  silver  mines  in  operation. 

ANAPOIMA,  prov.  of  Tequendama,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  32'  N.  lat.  ;  2,246  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,550.  Situated 
in  the  bed  of  an  ancient  lake.  Thermal  springs.  Copper 
mines. 

148 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  149 

ANDES,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  on  the  San  Juan  river ;  pop. 
18,400.  Is  situated  amid  fertile  fields.  A  cattle-breeding 
centre.     Also  rich  gold  and  salt  mines. 

ANGOSTURA,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6  °45'  N.  lat.  ;  5,313  ft. 
above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,200.  First  regular  Congress  of  the 
Republic  held  here. 

ANOLAIMA,  prov.  of  Facatativa,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  32'  N.  lat.  ;  4,650  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  14,400.  Agri- 
cultural and  mining  centre.  Large  sugar-cane  plantations ; 
lead  mine  ;  rich  deposits  of  limestone. 

ANSERMA,  prov.  of  Riosucio,  dep.  of  Caldas,  5°  12'  N.  lat.  ; 
5,877  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  13,000.  Coffee-growing 
district. 

ANTIOQUIA,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  24'  N.  lat.  ;  about 
1,800  feet  above  sea-level,  on  the  R.  Tonusco  ;  pop.  10,000. 
This  picturesque  old  city  was  founded  by  Robledo  in  1541, 
and  was  long  the  chief  town  of  that  district.  Possesses 
cathedral,  episcopal  palace,  public  schools,  hospital,  etc.  In 
an  agricultural  district.  Connected  with  Medellin  by  a  road, 
with  good  bridge  over  the  Cauca  river. 

APIA,  prov.  of  Riosucio,  dep.  of  Caldas  ;  5,374  ft.  above 
sea-level ;   pop.  6,100.     Coffee  and  tobacco-growing  district. 

ARANZAZU,  prov.  of  Salanima,  dep.  of  Caldas  ;  5°  26' 
N.  lat.  ;  5,765  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,100.  Coffee- 
growing  district. 

ARAUCA,  cap.  of  Comisaria  of  Arauca,  6°  32'  N.  lat.  ; 
640  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  ;  pop. 
3,000.  Cattle-raising  and  agricultural  district.  Sugar,  rice, 
maize,  cocoa,  plantains,  etc. 

ARBELAEZ,  prov.  of  Sumapaz,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca  ; 
pop.  5,900.     Agricultural  district. 

ARBOLEDAS,  prov.  of  Cucuta,  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander, 
7°  27'  N.  lat.  ;  2,994  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  9,700.  Coffee 
and  cocoa. 

ARJONA,  prov.  of  Cartagena,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  10°  16'  N. 

xx— (2248) 


150  COLOMBIA 

lat.  ;   344  ft.  above  sea-level ;   pop.  10,200.    Agricultural  and 
cattle-breeding  centre. 

ARMENIA,  prov.  of  Pereira,  dep.  of  Caldas  ;  5,515  ft.  above 
sea-level ;    pop.   13,700 ;    coffee  and  tobacco  cultivation. 
There  is  another  town  of  Armenia  in  Antioquia  ;  pop.  5,878. 

ASPACIA,  prov.  of  Ocafia,  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander, 
8°  N.  lat. ;  5,242  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,300.  Gold 
mining. 

B 

BANCO,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Banco,  dep.  of  Magdalena,  8°  52' 
N.  lat.,  a  port  on  the  R.  Magdalena,  at  its  juncture  with  the 
Cesar.     Commercial  and  agricultural  centre  ;    pop.  5,200. 

BARANOA,  prov.  of  Sabanalarga,  dep.  of  Atlantico,  10°  47' 
N.  lat.  ;  pop.  5,324.  Cotton-weaving  mills  in  the  town. 
Cotton  and  yuca  extensively  grown  in  the  neighbourhood. 

BARBACOAS,  cap.  prov.  of  Barbacoas,  dep.  of  Narifio, 
1°  54'  N.  lat.,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Guagui  and  Telembi 
rivers,  about  100  m.  from  the  Pacific  coast  ;  pop.  7,800. 
Founded  in  1607  as  Nuestra  Senora  del  Puerto  de  Nuevo 
Toledo  de  Barbacoas.  Formerly  a  rich  alluvial  mining 
district,  though  now  the  gold  production  has  fallen  off.  A 
trace  of  platinum  is  found  with  the  gold. 

BARBOSA,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  22'  N.  lat.  ;  about  4,247 
ft.  above  sea-level;  pop.  11,000.  Founded  in  1792.  Is  the 
centre  of  a  cattle-breeding  and  mining  district.  Rich  gold  and 
salt  mines  ;  also  lime  quarries.  Several  important  sugar  mills 
are  situated  here. 

BARICHARA,  prov.  of  Zapatoca,  dep.  of  Santander, 
6°  24'  N.  lat.  ;  4,332  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  11,300.  Chiefly 
occupied  with  manufacture  of  straw  hats  and  cigars. 
Principal  crops  :   tobacco,  cotton,  and  agave  (henequen). 

BARRANQUILLA,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Atlantico,  10°  29' 
N.  lat.,  on  the  R.  Magdalena  (at  about  55  miles  from  its  mouth), 
of  which  it  is  the  chief  port,  as  well  as  of  the  Republic  ;  pop. 
48,900.  The  climate  is  hot  and  damp.  Barranquilla  is  con- 
nected with  Puerto  Colombia  by  railway.     Founded  in  1629,  it 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  151 

had  a  chequered  career,  being  overshadowed  by  Cartagena, 
until  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  its  com- 
mercial importance  began  to  make  itself  felt.  It  is  a  busy, 
well-built  city,  possessing  a  large  covered  market,  hospital, 
theatre,  five  churches,  and  two  banks.  Two  of  the  largest 
flour  mills  in  the  country  are  found  here  ;  there  are  also  sugar, 
chocolate,  soap,  important  textile  and  other  factories.  The 
town  is  lit  by  electricity.  There  are  electric  tramways, 
telephone  service,  and  good  water  supply.  Barranquilla  is  the 
headquarters  of  steamer  traffic  on  the  Magdalena,  Cauca, 
Nechi,  and  other  rivers.  The  chief  Custom  House  of  the 
Republic  is  found  here. 

BAUDO,  Choco  Territory,  5°  10'  N.  lat.  ;  pop.  7,000. 
Centre  of  alluvial  gold  industry. 

BEL£N,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Tundama,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  52' 
N.  lat.  ;  8,860  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,164.  Cattle- 
breeding  centre. 

Another  town  of  Belen  is  in  the  prov.  of  Tundama,  dep.  of 
Caldas  ;    pop.  5,960. 

BELTRAN,  prov.  of  Guaduas,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  46'  N.  lat.  ;  755  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  1,968. 
Agricultural  centre  ;   on  the  La  Dorada  Railway. 

BITUIMA,  prov.  of  Guaduas,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  51' 
N.  lat.  ;  3,756  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  4,950.  Agricultural 
and  mining  centre. 

BOAVITA,  prov.  del  Norte,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  6°  N.  lat.  ; 
6,936  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,000.  Agricultural  centre. 
Produces  sugar-cane,  dates  and  an  odoriferous  resin  (storax). 
There  are  here  sugar  refineries  and  fruit-preserving  factories. 

BOCHALEMA,  prov.  of  Cucuta,  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander, 
7°  26'  N.  lat.  ;  3,362  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  a  small  valley  near 
the  R.  Pamplonita  ;  pop.  4,300.  Coffee  plantations.  Curious 
Indian  tombs,  with  mummies,  found  here. 

BOGOTA,  cap.  of  the  Republic,  of  the  dep.  of  Cundinamarca 
and  the  prov.  of  Bogota,  situated  in  4°  35'  N.  lat.,  at  8,679  ft. 
above  sea-level,  in  the  midst  of  rolling  plains  on  a  high  plateau 


152  COLOMBIA 

surrounded  by  great  mountains.  It  was  founded  on  the  site 
of  an  Indian  town  by  Belalcazar  in  1558,  and  has  always 
been  of  great  importance.  The  city  is  well  laid  out,  with 
spacious,  but  not  over  well-paved  streets,  open  squares, 
public  gardens,  imposing  public  buildings,  and  large  numbers 
of  fine  private  residences  and  business  premises.  Served  by 
several  railways,  it  has  an  excellent  network  of  municipal 
tramways,  is  lit  by  electricity,  possesses  two  of  the  best 
theatres  on  the  Continent  (the  Teatro  Colon  and  the  Teatro 
Municipal),  large  bull  ring,  hippodrome,  polo  club  grounds, 
and  many  other  conveniences.  In  this  city,  too,  will  be  found 
the  Capitol  (home  of  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies), 
the  President's  Palace,  ministerial  offices,  university,  many 
high  schools,  public,  secondary  and  elementary  schools,  public 
library  and  museum,  cathedral  and  a  great  many  churches 
and  old  conventual  establishments.  Bogota,  besides  being 
the  political  centre  of  the  country,  is  also  a  busy  mart  where 
much  of  the  imports  for  distribution  as  well  as  goods  for 
exports  are  gathered.  It  is  also  a  manufacturing  town,  textile 
(cotton  and  wool),  pottery,  glass,  sulphuric  acid,  soap  and 
candles,  cigars,  chocolate,  beer  and  other  liquors  being 
produced  ;  there  are  as  well  flour  mills,  tanneries,  and  brick 
and  tile  works.  There  are  four  banks,  the  Banco  de  Colombia, 
Banco  de  Bogota,  Banco  Central  and  the  Banco  Hipotecario, 
and  an  influential  insurance  company,  the  Compania  General 
de  Seguros,  with  a  capital  of  two  million  dollars  gold. 

BOLIVAR,  cap.  of  pro  v.  of  Caldas,  dep.  of  Cauca,  1°  49' 
N.  lat.  ;  5,512  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  17,738.  Picturesquely 
situated  town,  founded  in  1749.  Agricultural  and  mineral 
district. 

BOLIVAR,  prov.  of  Velez,  dep.  of  Santander,  5°  21'  N.  lat.  ; 
6,435  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  12,410.  Agricultural  centre. 
Close  by  are  unworked  emerald  strata. 

A  third  town  of  this  name  is  in  the  dep.  of  Antioquia,  pop. 
9,500  ;  and  a  fourth  in  the  prov.  of  Roldanillo,  dep.  of  El 
Valle,  pop.  4,600. 

BOYACA,  prov.  Centro,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  27'  N.  lat.  ; 
8,637  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  banks  of  a  small  river  of  the 
same  name  ;  pop.  6,600.     This  is  the  site  of  the  victory  which 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  153 

Bolivar  won  over  the  Royal  Spanish  troops  in  1819.  An 
obelisk  has  been  erected  to  commemorate  the  event.  An 
agricultural  centre. 

BUCARAMANGA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Bucaramanga  and 
dep.  of  Santander,  6°  50'  N.  lat.  ;  3,036  ft.  above  sea-level  ; 
pop.  19,700.  Founded  in  1778.  Has  wide  streets  and  many 
conveniences,  such  as  electric  light,  theatre,  hospital,  public 
gardens,  etc.  Is  situated  in  the  midst  of  fertile  coffee,  cocoa, 
cotton,  and  tobacco  plantations.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  coffee 
markets  of  the  country.  Possesses  factories  turning  out  straw 
hats,  textiles,  cigars,  beer,  etc.  Its  gold  mines  are  no  longer 
worked. 

BUENAVENTURA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Buenaventura,  dep.  of 
El  Valle,  3°  53'  N.  lat.,  situated  on  the  island  of  Cascajal ; 
pop.  6,500.  Principal  Colombian  Pacific  port,  and  head  of  the 
Pacific-Cali  Railway.  Custom  House  and  submarine  cable 
station.  Important  market  town,  and  port  of  entry  for  the 
whole  Cauca  Valley. 

BUGA,  cap.  prov.  of  Buga,dep.  of  El  Valle,  3°  55'  N.  lat.  ; 
3,285  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  banks  of  river  of  the  same  name, 
close  to  the  R.  Cauca;  pop.  11,600.  Founded  in  1575  by 
Alvaro  de  Mendoza  as  Guadalajara,  subsequently  known  as 
Nueva  Galicia.     An  important  agricultural  centre. 


CACERES,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  7°  30'  N.  lat.  ;  652  ft.  above 
sea-level ;  pop.  5,500.  Coal  seams.  Extensive  gold  dredging 
operations  carried  on  here. 

CALAMAR,  prov.  of  Cartagena,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  10°  17'  N. 
lat.,  on  the  banks  of  the  Magdalena  ;  pop.  6,349.  The  river 
terminus  of  the  Cartagena  Railway,  which  gives  it  its  only 
importance. 

CALAMAR,  cap.  of  the  Comisaria  de  Vaupes,  on  the  R. 
Unilla,  just  S.  of  the  Equator.  Floating  pop.  of  about  500. 
Centre  for  the  collection  of  the  caucho  negro,  or  forest  rubber. 

CALARCA,  prov.  of  Pereira,  dep.  of  Caldas  ;    5,512  ft. 


154  COLOMBIA 

above    sea-level ;     pop.    13,200.     Agricultural    and    mining 
centre. 

CALDAS,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  5°  58'  N.  lat.  ;  5,300  ft.  above 
sea-level ;  pop.  5,700.  Possesses  glass  and  pottery  factories 
and  foundries. 

Also  Caldas,  prov.  of  Occidente,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  pop.  5,000  ; 
and  Caldas,  prov.  of  Ambalema,  dep.  of  Tolima,  pop.  5,600. 

CALI,  the  capital  of  the  prov.  of  Cali  and  the  dep.  of  El 
Valle,  is  situated  in  3°  5'  N.  lat.,  on  the  R.  Cali,  at  3,420  ft. 
above  sea-level,  enjoys  an  average  temperature  of  25°  C,  and 
has  a  population  of  27,500.  It  was  founded  in  1535.  Much 
of  the  old  town  remains,  but  it  is  a  thoroughly  progressive 
place,  with  steam  tramways,  electric  light  and  a  number  of 
large  factories.  There  is  a  handsome  cathedral,  numerous 
other  churches,  a  hospital,  schools,  theatre  and  public  gardens. 
There  are  large  furniture,  soap  and  candle  factories,  foundries, 
etc.  It  collects  and  exports  gold,  coffee,  cocoa,  rubber  and 
other  local  produce.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  are 
vast  deposits  of  excellent  coal,  so  far  unworked.  River 
steamer  communication  with  Cartago. 

CALOTO,  capital  of  the  prov.  of  Camilo  Torres,  dep.  of 
Cauca,  2°  46'  N.  lat.  ;  3,320  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,578. 
Founded  in  1543.     Agricultural  and  mining  centre. 

CAMPOALEGRE,  prov.  of  Neiva,  dep.  of  Huila,  2°  57' 
N.  lat  ;  over  1,800  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  9,250.  Situated 
in  a  fertile  plain.  Fruit,  cattle,  etc.  Alluvial  gold  deposits 
worked. 

CANDELARIA,  prov.  of  Palmira,  dep.  of  El  Valle,  3°  25' 
N.  lat.  ;  3,152  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,900.  Agricultural 
centre,  producing  maize,  bananas,  sugar-cane  and  cocoa. 

CAPARRAPI,  prov.  of  Guadas,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
5°  16'  N.  lat.  ;  over  4,300  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,417. 
Agricultural  centre. 

CAPILLA  DE  COCUY,  prov.  of  Gutierrez,  dep.  of  Boyaca, 
5  °  N.  lat.  ;  9,192  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,700.  Agricultural 
centre. 


LIST  OF   IMPORTANT  TOWNS  155 

CAQUEZA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  del  Oriente,  dep.  of  Cundina- 
marca,  4°  25'  N.  lat.  ;  5,785  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,000. 
Commercial  and  agricultural  centre.  Half-way  halting  stage 
between  the  Sabana  of  Bogota  and  the  llanos  of  the  Meta. 
Is  a  centre  for  the  manufacture  of  textile  and  other  articles 
from  henequen  fibre. 

CARAMANTA,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  5°  28'  N.  lat.  ;  6,893  ft. 
above  sea-level ;   pop.  5,000.     Gold  and  silver  mining. 

CARMEN  (EL),  dep.  of  Antioquia,  5°  N.  lat.  ;  6,916  ft. 
above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,312.  Agricultural  centre.  Commerce 
in  salt  from  springs,  timber  and  pottery. 

CARMEN,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  El  Carmen,  dep.  of  Bolivar, 
9°  44'  N.  lat.  ;  492  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  16,300.  Situated 
on  a  fertile  plain,  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  tobacco 
crops. 

Also  Carmen,  prov.  of  Atrato,  district  of  Choco,  pop.  2,300  ; 
Carmen,  prov.  of  Ocana,  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander,  pop. 
8,200  ;  and  Carmen  de  Agricala,  prov.  of  Guaduas,  dep.  of 
Tolima,  pop.  2,700. 

CARMEN  DE  CARUPA,  prov.  of  Ubate,  dep.  of  Cundina- 
marca,  5  deg.  14'  N.  lat.  ;  9,745  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop. 
8,238.     Coal  mines.     Centre  of  fertile  agricultural  district. 

CARTAGENA,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Bolivar,  10°  25'  N.  lat.  ; 
situated  on  an  island  in  Cartagena  bay  ;  pop.  36,632.  This 
ancient  city,  founded  in  1533  by  Pedro  de  Heredia,  was  for 
long  one  of  the  most  important  settlements  in  Spanish  South 
America.  Strongly  fortified,  it  became  the  emporium  of  that 
great  exchange  of  wealth  between  the  New  and  the  Old 
World,  and  consequently  attracted  various  covetous  persons. 
Captured  and  sacked  by  French  pirates  in  1544,  forty-two 
years  later  it  fell  to  Francis  Drake,  who  carried  off  vast 
wealth  in  gold,  silver  and  precious  stones,  besides  exacting  a 
ransom  of  113,000  dollars  ;  attacked  in  1620  by  united  bands 
of  English  and  French  pirates,  a  successful  defence  was  made  ; 
but  in  1697  a  strong  French  force  captured  the  town,  the 
conquerors  singing  the  Te  Deum  Laudamus  in  the  cathedral, 
and  carrying  off  over  seven  million  dollars  worth  of  treasure. 
Finally  came  the  unfortunate  enterprise  of  Admiral  Vernon 


156  COLOMBIA 

and  General  Wentworth  in  1741,  which  suffered  unqualified 
defeat.  For  its  resistance  to  foreign  foes  and  rebels,  the 
Spanish  kings  bestowed  on  it  a  coat  of  arms  and  the  title  of 
"  Most  Noble  and  Loyal."  In  spite  of  this  it  declared  for 
independence  in  1811.  Four  years  later  it  suffered  siege  by 
land  and  water,  falling  after  heroic  efforts  to  the  Royalist  army 
when  the  leaders  of  the  Republican  party  were  put  to  death  ; 
a  large  ransom  exacted  and  the  office  of  Holy  Inquisition 
re-established.  But  as  the  result  of  the  victory  of  Boyaca 
in  1819,  the  Spanish  governor  capitulated  eighteen  months 
later.  Cartagena  still  retains  much  of  its  old  world  appear- 
ance, with  its  stout  ramparts  and  bastions,  its  splendid  cathe- 
dral, archiepiscopal  palace,  viceroy's  ancient  palace  and  other 
buildings,  vying  with  its  modern  edifices,  which  includes  the 
National  Treasury,  hospitals,  and  a  fine  theatre.  The  Univer- 
sity is  installed  in  the  old  convent  of  San  Augustin  ;  there 
are  numerous  educational  establishments  besides,  among  which 
is  the  National  Normal  School  for  Teachers.  While  the 
streets  of  Cartagena  itself  are  rather  narrow,  though  well 
paved,  the  pleasant  residential  suburbs  of  Jetyemani,  Pie  de 
la  Popa  and  Cabrero  have  wide  streets,  with  charming  villas 
hidden  among  palms  and  other  tropical  vegetation.  Although 
Barranquilla  has  done  much  to  take  away  the  commercial 
leadership,  Cartagena  still  retains  an  influential  position  in  the 
business  world.  It  has  textile  (spinning  and  weaving),  sugar, 
chocolate,  soap,  straw  hat,  boot,  tanning  and  other  factories, 
large  flour  mills,  petroleum  refinery,  and  other  works.  Carta- 
gena is  lit  by  electricity,  has  a  good  tramway  service,  and  is 
linked  up  with  the  Magdalena  by  a  canal,  the  Dique,  and  a 
railway.  The  latter  runs  from  the  spacious  wharves  and 
warehouses,  on  the  shores  of  the  magnificent  harbour,  to  the 
fluvial  port  of  Calamar.  Commercially  Cartagena  is  not  only 
important  as  an  entrepot  for  overseas  traffic  (about  35  per 
cent,  of  the  imports  pass  through  its  Custom  House),  but  also 
as  the  main  trading  centre  for  the  dep.  of  Bolivar  and  the  whole 
of  the  Atrato  valley. 

CARTAGO,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Cartago,  dep.  of  El  Valle, 
4°  45'  N.  lat.,  near  the  Rio  Vieja.  It  was  originally  founded 
in  1540  on  the  R.  Otun,  but  soon  after  transferred  to  its 
present  site  ;  pop.  18,600.     An  agricultural  centre,  producing 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  157 

cocoa,  coffee,  tobacco,  etc.     Busy  commercial  community. 
Steamer  communication  between  Cartago  and  Cali. 

CERETE,  prov.  of  Sinu,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  8°  47'  N.  lat.  ; 
82  ft.  above  sea-level ;    pop.  9,000.     A  commercial  centre. 

CERRITO,  prov.  of  Buga,  dep.  of  El  Valle,  3°  43'  N.  lat.  ; 
3,063  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  ; 
pop.  6,300.     An  agricultural  centre. 

CHARALA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Charala,  dep.  of  Santander, 
6°  N.  lat.  ;  4,751  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  9,900.  Agriculture 
(sugar-cane,  maize,  etc.)  ;  cattle-breeding  ;  manufacture  of 
blankets  ;   tanneries. 

CHIA,  prov.  of  Bogota,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  50'  N.  lat.  ; 
8,567  ft.  above  sea-level ;   pop.  6,430.     Agricultural  centre. 

CHINACOTA,  prov.  of  Cucuta,  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander, 
7°  23'  N.  lat.;  6,320  ft.  above  sea-level;  pop.  10,100. 
Important  agricultural  centre.     Coffee,  cocoa,  etc. 

CHINU,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Chinu,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  9°  N.  lat.  ; 
pop.  12,000.  Founded  in  1534  by  Pedro  de  Heredia,  on  site 
of  an  ancient  Indian  town.  Is  in  midst  of  fertile  plains,  on 
which  extensive  herds  of  cattle  are  bred. 

CHIPAQUE,  prov.  del  Oriente,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  26'  N.  lat.  ;  7,905  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,500. 
Agricultural  centre. 

CHIQUINQUIRA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  Occidente,  dep.  of 
Boyaca,  5°  32'  N.  lat.  ;  8,500  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop. 
14,500.  Founded  in  1586.  Possesses  fine  church,  colleges, 
hospital,  and  other  public  buildings.  Some  manufacturing  is 
carried  on  here.  The  town  is  on  a  plain,  whose  rich  pasturages 
carry  large  flocks  of  sheep. 

CHIRIGUANA,  prov.  of  Valledupar,  dep.  of  Magdalena, 
9°  10'  N.  lat.  ;  pop.  6,500.  An  agricultural  centre,  near  the 
R.Cesar.  Well  known  for  the  excellence  of  its  cattle  and 
cocoa. 

CHISCAS,  prov.  of  Gutierrez,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  6°  42'  N.  lat.  ; 


158  COLOMBIA 

7,813  ft.  above  sea-level,  situated  on  a  plain  near  the  Sierra 
Navada  del  Cocuy  ;   pop.  6,600.      Agricultural  centre. 

CHITA,  prov.  of  Gutierrez,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  6°  N.  lat.  ; 
pop.  9,100.  Ancient  Indian  settlement.  Important  agri- 
cultural centre.  Saline  thermal  springs  in  neighbourhood, 
which  are  exploited. 

CHOACHI,  prov.  del  Oriente,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  5°  32' 
N.  lat.  ;  6,182  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,100.  Thermal  spring 
bathing  station.      Fruit  and  cereals  produced  on  a  large  scale. 

CHOCONTA,  cap.  prov.  of  Choconta,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
5°  N.  lat.  ;  8,732  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  9,900.  Built  on 
site  of  old  Chibchas  fortified  town,  at  extremity  of  the  sabana 
of  Bogota.  Inhabitants  chiefly  occupied  in  sadlers'  and 
harness  makers'  industry.  In  neighbourhood  are  unworked 
rich  deposits  of  iron,  asphalt,  etc.     Also  thermal  springs. 

CIENAGA,  prov.  of  Santa  Marta,  dep.  of  Magdalena,  11° 
N.  lat.  Situated  on  a  plain  on  the  Atlantic  coast  at  the  foot 
of  the  Sierra  Navada  de  Santa  Marta  ;  pop.  14,610.  Shipping 
and  agricultural  centre.  Many  of  its  inhabitants  are  engaged 
in  the  coasting  trade.  Cocoa,  cotton,  and  tobacco,  but  chiefly 
bananas  are  grown.  A  little  gold  and  good  marble.  Cienaga 
was  formerly  known  as  San  Juan  de  Cordoba. 

Also  Cienaga,  prov.  of  Marquez,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  pop.  4,700. 

CIENAGA  DE  ORO,  prov.  of  Sinu,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  on  the 
Martinez,  a  tributary  of  the  Sinu  ;  pop.  9,500.  Centre  of 
agriculture  and  alluvial  gold  mining. 

CIRCASIA,  prov.  of  Pereira,  dep.  of  Caldas  ;  pop.  6,100. 
Agricultural  centre. 

COCUY,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Gutierrez,  dep.  of  Boyaca, 
6°  16'  N.  lat.  ;  9,050  ft.  above  sea-level,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  del  Cocuy  ;  pop.  7,870.  Agricultural  and  mining  cen- 
tre. Much  wheat,  oats,  and  maize  grown.  Gold  and  silver 
abundant. 

COELLO,  prov.  of  Ibague,  dep.  of  Tolima,  4°  16'  N.  lat.  ; 
1,090  ft.  above  sea-level,  near  the  rivers  of  the  same  name 


LIST  OF   IMPORTANT  TOWNS  159 

and   of    the    Magdalena ;     pop.    4,825.     Silver   mines,    gold 
alluviums  and  thermal  springs. 

COLEGIO.     See  El  Colegio. 

CONCEPCI6N,  prov.  of  Malaga,  dep.  of  Santander,  6°  35' 
N.  lat.  ;  6,427  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,100.  Agricultural 
centre.     Thermal  springs. 

Also  Concepcion,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  pop.  3,300 ;  and 
Concepcion,  prov.  of  Gorzou,  dep.  of  Huila,  pop.  3,500. 

CONVENCI6N,  prov.  of  Ocafia,  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander, 
8°  12'  N.  lat.  ;  3,252  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,200. 
Agricultural  centre. 

COROZAL,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Corozal,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  9°  27' 
N.  lat.  ;  510  ft.  above  sea  ;  pop.  10,900.  Centre  of  extensive 
cattle-breeding  district.  Produces  textiles  and  much 
appreciated  cotton  embroideries. 

CUCUTA  (San  Jose  de  Cucuta),  cap.  of  prov.  of  Cucuta  and 
of  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander,  7°  38'  N.  lat.  ;  1,052  ft.  above 
sea-level ;  pop.  20,400.  The  town  lies  within  ten  miles  of  the 
Venezuelan  frontier,  and  is  connected  by  railway  with  the 
R.  Zulia,  which  flows  into  Lake  Maracaibo,  and  so  into  the 
Atlantic.  It  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1875,  and 
has  been  rebuilt  with  wide  tree-bordered  streets  and  fine 
houses.  It  is  lighted  by  electricity  and  served  by  a  tramway 
and  the  telephone.  Among  the  public  buildings  are  a  theatre, 
casino,  hospital,  many  churches  and  schools.  There  are  two 
public  parks.  Local  industries  are  carried  on  vigorously,  but 
the  chief  business  of  the  place  is  to  act  as  a  gathering  and 
distributing  centre  for  the  agricultural  and  other  products 
of  the  district.  Cucuta  coffee  has  an  excellent  reputation. 
Seat  of  a  Custom  house. 

CUCUTILLA,  prov.  of  Pamplona,  dep.  of  Norte  de  San- 
tander, 7°  21'  N.  lat.  ;  4,342  feet  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,600. 
Agricultural  centre. 

CUMBAL,  prov.  of  Ipiales,  dep.  of  Narino,  0°  49'  N.  lat.  ; 
12,297  ft.  above  sea-level,  at  the  foot  of  the  volcano  of  the  same 
name  ;   pop.  7,400.     Agricultural  centre. 


160  COLOMBIA 

D 
DAGUA,  prov.  of  Cali,  dep.  of  El  Valle,  on  the  river  of  that 
name  ;   pop.  6,300.     Agricultural  centre.     Alluvial  gold. 

DUITAMA,  prov.  of  Tundama,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  47'  N.  lat.; 
8,239  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  9,915.  Celebrated  for  its 
orchards,  and  its  manufacture  of  esparto  matting. 

E 
EL  COLEGIO,  prov.  of  Tequendama,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°   33'   N.    lat. ;     3,972   ft.    above   sea-level ;     pop.    6,350. 
Agricultural  centre. 

EL  PENON,  prov.  of  Zipaquira,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
5°  N.  lat.  ;  4,563  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,600.  Agricultural 
centre. 

F 

FACATATIVA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Facatativa  and  of  the 
dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  45'  N.  lat.  ;  8,634  ft.  above  sea- 
level  ;  pop.  10,534.  On  site  of  an  old  Chibchas  stronghold, 
on  the  eastern  confines  of  the  sabana  of  Bogota  at  the  con- 
fluence of  two  small  rivers.  Busy  commercial  centre,  with 
wide  streets,  well-built  public  edifices  and  factories.  Is 
connected  with  the  Bogota  by  rail  and  tramways,  and  is  an 
entrepot  for  mineral  and  agricultural  produce  and  also  for 
imported  manufactured  goods.  Thermal  springs  and  curious 
inscribed  rocks  in  the  neighbourhood. 

FIRAVITOBA,  prov.  of  Sugumuxi,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  34' 
N.  lat.  ;  8,435  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,550.  Agricultural 
centre. 

FLORENCIA,  cap.  of  Caqueta  Comisaria. 

FOMEQUE,  prov.  del  Oriente,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  30' 
N.  lat.  ;  6,467  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,900.  Agricultural 
centre. 

FREDONIA,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  5°  50'  N.  lat.  ;  about 
6,060  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  18,200.  Important  agricul- 
tural centre,  much  coffee  grown.  Fine  outcroppings  of  coal 
seen  here. 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  161 

FRONTINO,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  32'  N.  lat.  ;  about 
5,100  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,587.  Busy  agricultural  and 
commercial  centre.  Large  coffee  and  sugar  plantations.  The 
neighbouring  forests  produce  vegetable  ivory,  rubber,  and 
cabinet  woods.     Rich  gold  mines. 

FUSAGASUGA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Sampaz,  dep.  of 
Cundinamarca,  4°  21'  N.  lat.;  5,818  ft.  above  sea-level; 
pop.  13,500.     Great  coffee  plantation  centre. 

G 

GACHALA,  prov.  of  Guavio,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  44' 
N.  lat.  ;  5,742  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,920.  Agricultural 
district. 

GACHETA,  cap.  prov.  Guavio,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  47'  N.  lat.  ;  5,643  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  12,500.  Sulphur 
and  salt  mines  ;  also  thermal  springs.  Centre  of  a  rich 
agricultural  and  cattle-raising  district. 

GARAGOA,  prov.  of  Niera,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  N.  lat.  ; 
5,200  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  9,200.  Agricultural  centre, 
the  chief  crops  being  sugar-cane,  bananas,  aniseed. 

GARZON,  cap.  prov.  of  Garzon,  dep.  of  Huila,  2°  50'  N.  lat.  ; 
2,692  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,800.  A  bishopric.  The 
town  is  built  on  site  of  an  ancient  lake,  amidst  extensive  cocoa 
plantations  and  wide  pastures,  which  carry  a  heavy  head  of 
cattle.     Possesses  asphalt  mines. 

GIGANTE,  prov.  of  Garzon,  dep.  of  Huila,  2°  40'  N.  lat.  ; 
2,660  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,800.  Town  derives  its 
name  from  the  discovery  here  by  the  Spanish  conquerors 
of  quantities  of  fossil  bones  of  huge  animals.  Gold  placer 
mines. 

GIRARDOT,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Girardot,  dep.  of  Cundina- 
marca, 4°  16'  N.  lat.  ;  1,083  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,400. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Magdalena.  Of  great  importance  as 
the  terminus  of  the  Girardot-Bogota  railway.  A  lengthy 
suspension  bridge  at  the  Paso  de  Flandes  gives  direct 
communication  between  Bogota  and  Ibague. 


162  COLOMBIA 

GIRARDOTA,  Antioquia,  6°  16'  N.  lat.  ;  4,599  ft.  above 
sea-level.     Founded  in  1702  ;   pop.  8,100. 

GIRON,  prov.  of  Bucaramanga,  dep.  of  Santander,  6°  47' 
N.  lat. ;  1,849  ft.  above  sea-level  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  de 
Oro  ;  pop.  6,200.  Chief  interests  :  straw  hat  manufacture, 
cattle-breeding,  tobacco-growing. 

GUACA,  prov.  of  San  Andres,  dep.  of  Santander,  6°  44' 
N.  lat.  ;  over  8,400  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,100.  Commer- 
cial and  agricultural  centre.  Esteemed  for  its  woollen 
fabrics,  known  as  "  ruanas." 

GUCARI,  prov.  of  Buga,  dep.  of  El  Valle,  3°  45'  N.  lat.  ; 
3,217  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,500.  Agricultural  and 
cattle-raising  centre. 

GUACHETA,  prov.  of  Ubate,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
5°  18'  N.  lat.  ;  8,874  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,300.  Occupies 
the  site  of  an  old  and  wealthy  Indian  town  ;  copper  mines. 

GUADUAS,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Guadas,  dep.  of  Cundina- 
marca, 5°  N.  lat.  ;  3,368  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,700. 
Busy  and  wealthy  little  town,  situated  in  a  pleasant,  healthy 
valley.  Agricultural  and  mining  centre.  Coffee,  sugar-cane, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  indigo  grow  well.  Palm  straw  hats 
manufactured.     Coal  and  asphalte  mines.     Thermal  springs. 

GUAITARILLA,  prov.  of  Tuquerres,  dep.  of  Narino,  1°  N. 
lat.  ;  8,755  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,000.  Agricultural 
centre. 

GUASCA,  prov.  of  Guatavita,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  49' 
N.  lat.  ;  8,710  ft.  above  sea- level,  near  the  lake  of  the  same 
name  ;  pop.  5,760.  Site  of  the  old  Indian  town.  Coal  mines. 
Thermal  springs. 

GUATAVITA,  cap.  prov.  of  Guatavita,  dep.  of  Cundina- 
marca, 4°  51'  N.  lat.  ;  8,522  ft.  above  sea-level.  Site  of  an 
old  Indian  town,  sacked  by  Quesada.  Extensive  production 
of  woollen  fabrics.     Coal  mines. 

GUATEQUE,  cap.  of  prov.  del  Oriente,  dep.  of  Boyaca 
5°  N.  lat.  ;   5,989  ft.  above  sea-level.     Situated  in  the  Tenza 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  163 

valley ;     pop.     7,000.     Founded     1671.     Agricultural    and 
mining  centre.     Gold,  silver,  and  copper. 

GUAYATA,  prov.  del  Oriente,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  4°  59'  N. 
lat.  ;  5,657  ft.  above  sea-level,  near  the  R.  Macheta  ;  pop. 
8,150.     Important  agricultural  centre. 

H 

HATO,  prov.  of  La  Plata,  dep.  of  Huila,  2°  25'  N.  lat.  ; 
2,685  ft.  above  sea-level ;   pop.  6,300.     Agricultural  district. 

Also  Hato,  prov.  of  Zapatoca,  dep.  of  Santander  ;  pop. 
2,000. 

HONDA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Honda,  dep.  of  Tolima,  5°  11'  N. 
lat.  ;  689  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,600.  Busy  port  and 
mart  on  the  Magdalena,  terminus  of  the  lower  fluvial  naviga- 
tion.    Station  on  the  La  Dorada-Ambalema  Railway. 

I 

IBAGU£,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Ibague  and  the  dep.  of  Tolima, 
4°  27'  N.  lat.  ;  4,266  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Combeima,  a  tributary  of  the  R.  Coello  ;  pop.  24,700.  Founded 
in  1551.  A  pleasant,  well-planned  town,  enjoying  an  excellent 
climate,  owing  to  the  cool  mountain  breezes.  It  is  an  active 
commercial  centre,  for  the  valleys  of  the  Cauca  and  Magda- 
lena ;  exporting  coffee,  cocoa,  sugar,  straw  hats,  hides,  rubber, 
tobacco  and  vegetable  ivory.  There  are  gold,  silver  and 
sulphur  mines,  and  thermal  springs  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  cattle  trade  is  developed  on  quite  a  big  scale. 

IPIALES,  cap.  prov.  of  Ipiales,  dep.  of  Narifio,  0°  46'  N. 
lat.;  10,123  ft.  above  sea-level,  near  the  R.  Male;  pop. 
14,600.  Industrial  and  commercial  centre,  having  consider- 
able dealings  with  Ecuador.  Is  the  seat  of  a  Custom  house. 
Chief  industries  :   cabinet  work  and  tanning. 

ISCUANDE,  prov.  of  Nunez,  dep.  of  Narifio,  2°  31'  N.  lat.  ; 
pop.  7,300.  Situated  amidst  marshes.  Sugar-cane,  rice, 
cocoa,  bananas,  and  rice  grown  in  large  quantities. 

ISTMINA  (or  SAN  PABLO),  district  of  the  Choco,  1°  38' 
N.  lat.,  lying  between  the  headwaters  of  the  Atrato  and  San 


164  COLOMBIA 

Juan  rivers;    pop.   11,100.     One  of  the  chief  markets  for 
platinum,  brought  in  from  the  Condoto,  Iro,  and  other  rivers. 

ITUANGO,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  59'  N.  lat.  ;  pop.  15,246. 
Agricultural  centre. 

J 

JAMUNDI,  prov.  of  Cali,  dep.  of  El  Valle,  3°  20'  N.  lat.  ; 
3,365  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,250.  Agricultural  centre, 
producing  maize,  bananas,  cocoa. 

JENESANO,  prov.  of  Marquez,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  23'  N.  lat.  ; 
7,107  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  banks  of  river  of  same  name ; 
pop.  7,560.     Great  centre  for  fruit-growing  and  cattle-raising. 

JERICO,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  N.  lat.  ;  6,790  ft.  above 
sea-level;  pop.  15,200.  Founded  in  1851,  and  was  the 
capital  of  the  old  dep.  of  Jerico.  Is  a  nourishing  agricultural 
and  commercial  centre.  Cattle-raising  and  coffee-planting 
are  carried  out  on  a  large  scale.  The  town  possesses  an 
extensive  weaving  mill. 

j£RICO,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Valderrama,  dep.  of  Boyaca, 
6°  N.  lat.  ;  over  10,000  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,200. 
Agricultural  centre. 

Also  Jerico,  prov.  of  Villavicencio,  Meta. 

JESUS  MARIA,  prov.  of  Valez,  dep.  of  Santander,  5°  46' 
N.  lat.  ;  6,326  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  13,200.  Founded  in 
1774.     Agricultural  centre. 

JUNIN,  prov.  of  Guavio,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  44'  N. 
lat.;  5,975  ft.  above  sea-level;  pop.  11,758.  Centre  of 
agricultural  district. 

L 

LA  CRUZ,  capital  of  prov.  of  La  Cruz,  dep.  of  Narifio, 
1°  34'  N.  lat.  ;   7,889  ft.  above  sea-level ;   pop.  9,500. 

Also  La  Cruz,  prov.  of  Ocafia,  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander, 
pop.  8,000. 

LA  MESA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Tequendama,  dep.  of  Cundina- 
marca, 4°  36'  N.  lat.  ;  4,205  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  11,122. 
Important  market  for  cocoa,  coffee,  sugar,  maize,  salt  and 
palm  straw  hats.     Fertile  cocoa  and  coffee  plantations. 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  165 

LA  PALMA,  prov.  of  Guaduas,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
5°  N.  lat.  ;  4,781  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,400.  Agricultural 
centre. 

Also  La  Palma,  prov.  of  Ocana,  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander  ; 
pop.  2,800. 

LA  PLATA,  cap.  prov.  of  La  Plata,  dep.  of  Huila,  2°  35' 
N.  lat.  ;  3,334  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,130.  Agricultural 
and  silver-mining  district. 

LA  UNION,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Juamambu,  dep.  of  Narifio, 
1°  33'  N.  lat.  ;  pop.  9,100. 

Towns  of  the  same  name  in  Antioquia,  pop.  2,700  ;  prov.  of 
Neiva,  Huila,  pop.  5,000  ;  and  prov.  of  Roldanillo,  El  Valle, 
pop.  3,200. 

LA  VEGA,  prov.  of  Facatativa,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  55'  N.  lat.  ;  3,822  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,900. 
Agricultural  centre. 

Also  La  Vega,  prov.  of  Caldas,  dep.  of  Cauca,  pop.  6,600. 

LORICA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Sinu,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  9°  15' 
N.  lat.,  on  the  R.  Sinu ;  pop.  19,000.  Busy  commercial, 
agricultural,  and  mining  centre.  The  river  is  navigable  up 
to  this  point  by  fairly  large  steamers. 

M 

MAGANGUfi,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Magangue,  dep.  of  Bolivar, 
9°  26'  N.  lat.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cauca,  almost  at  its 
confluence  with  the  Magdalena ;  pop.  13,400.  A  busy 
fluvial  port,  where  well-attended  fairs  are  held  periodically. 
Possesses  textile  mills. 

MAJAGUAL,  prov.  of  Magangue,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  8°  22' 
N.  lat.  ;  pop.  9,700.     Agricultural  centre. 

MALAGA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Malaga,  dep.  of  Santander, 
6°  31'  N.  lat.  ;  7,262  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,600. 

MANIZALES,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Manizales  and  the 
dep.  of  Caldas,  5°  N.  lat.,  at  7,025  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop. 
34,700.  Although  only  founded  in  1846,  it  is  an  important 
and  rapidly  growing  city.     It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop.   Perched 

12— (2248) 


166  COLOMBIA 

on  a  rocky  peak  overlooking  the  plateaux  of  Ruiz,  it  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  range  of  snowy  mountains,  owing  its  very  name 
to  the  granite  on  which  it  is  based.  Manizales  possesses 
wide  streets,  public  gardens,  colleges,  and  schools,  theatres,  and 
four  banks.  On  the  plains  large  herds  of  cattle  graze,  and  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  are  sulphur  and  salt  mines, 
and  thermal  sulphur  and  saline  springs.  Although  distant 
from  any  river  and  having  no  railway,  it  is  the  gathering  and 
distributing  centre  for  much  of  the  commerce  of  the  surround- 
ing departments.  It  is  one  of  the  leading  markets  for  gold, 
sulphur,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  cattle. 

MANZANARES,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Manzanares,  dep.  of 
Caldas,  pop.   11,900.     Important  mining  centre. 

MARMATO,  prov.  of  Riosucio,  dep.  of  Caldas,  5°  5'  N.  lat.  ; 
5,121  ft.  above  sea-level  ;  pop.  5,100.  One  of  the  richest 
gold-mining  districts  of  the  Republic.  The  mines  are  State 
property,  leased  to  the  Colombian  Mining  and  Exploration 
Company,  of  London. 

MATANZA,  prov.  of  Bucaramanga,  dep.  of  Santander, 
7°  40'  N.  lat.  ;  5,269  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,700.  Deposits 
of  coal,  talc  and  rock  ;  crystal  abundant. 

MEDELLIN,  cap.  of  the  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  V  N.  lat.  ; 
4,600  ft.  above  sea-level,  situated  in  a  picturesque,  fairly 
sheltered  valley,  enjoying  an  excellent  climate.  Founded  in 
1675  ;  pop.  71,000.  Its  streets  are  wide  and  houses  well 
built.  It  is  lit  by  electricity,  and  plans  have  been  prepared 
for  a  modern  drainage  system.  It  possesses  a  university, 
public  library,  schools  of  arts,  mines  and  mechanics,  as  well  as 
secondary  and  primary  schools,  museum,  assay  and  chemical 
laboratories,  mint,  two  banks,  two  theatres,  a  bull  ring  and 
many  factories.  Among  these  must  be  specified  five  textile 
factories  (spinning  and  weaving),  the  largest  employing  400 
girls  and  110  men,  and  having  an  output  of  8,000  yards  of 
cotton  and  woollen  cloth  ;  four  foundries  ;  an  engineering 
shop  chiefly  engaged  in  manufacturing  machinery  for  handling 
coffee  and  chocolate,  and  large  tannery ;  four  chocolate 
factories  ;  four  breweries  ;  and  establishments  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cigars  and  cigarettes,  candles,  and  soap.    Another 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  167 

textile  factory  and  one  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  are  in 
the  course  of  erection.  It  is  of  considerable  commercial 
importance,  being  one  of  the  largest  collecting  and  distributing 
centres  in  the  Republic  ;  the  chief  exports  are  gold,  silver , 
coffee,  and  hides. 

MESA.     See  La  Mesa. 

MIRAFLORES,  capital  of  Province  of  Neira,  dep.  of  Boyaca, 
5°  14' N.  lat.  ;  4,340  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  19,150.  Tropical 
crops. 

MIRAFLORES,  prov.  of  Ibague,  dep.  of  Tolima,  4°  14' 
N.  lat.  ;  2,627  ft.  above  sea-level  ;  pop.  7,438.  Founded 
in  1778.     Gold-mining  and  agricultural  produce. 

MOCOA,  capital  of  the  Comisaria  of  the  Putumayo,  0°  56' 
N.  lat.  ;  2,094  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  1,400.  An  old  penal 
settlement,  now  a  trading  centre  for  the  collection  of  rubber,  etc. 

MOGOTES,  prov.  of  San  Gil,  dep.  of  Santander,  6°  16'  N. 
lat.  ;  5,582  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,300.  Well  known  for 
its  fruit  preserves.     Coal  mines  in  the  district. 

MOLAGAVITA,  prov.  of  San  Andres,  dep.  of  Santander, 
6°  32'  N.  lat.  ;  7,062  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  banks  of  the  river 
of  the  same  name  ;  pop.  7,000.     Coal  mines. 

MOMPOS,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Mompos,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  9°  14' 
N.  lat.,  on  a  branch  of  the  Magdalena  ;  pop.  14,700.  Founded 
by  Alonzo  de  Heredia,  in  1539.  A  fine  town,  with  public 
buildings.  A  commercial  and  manufacturing  centre,  with 
several  foundries  and  jewellery  factories.  Large  trade  in 
cattle  and  choice  tobacco. 

MONIQUIRA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Ricaurte,  dep.  of  Boyaca, 
5°  47'  N.  lat.  ;  5,797  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  of  the  same  name  ;  pop.  10,746.  An  agricultural  centre. 
Fruit  preserving  factories  are  extensive.  Rich  copper  mines 
in  the  vicinity. 

MONTERIA,  prov.  of  Sinu,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  on  the  Sinu  ; 
pop.  21,500.  Chiefly  engaged  in  production  of  illuminating 
oil  known  as  "  Corozo." 


168  COLOMBIA 

N 

NAZARET,  prov.  of  Riosucio,  dep.  of  Caldas  ;  pop.  9,400. 
Agricultural  colony. 

NEIRA,  prov.  of  Manizales,  dep.  of  Caldas,  5°  11'  N.  lat.  ; 
6,372  ft.  above  sea-level  ;  pop.  12,500.  Agricultural  and 
cattle-raising  centre.     Valuable  salt  springs. 

NEIVA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Neiva  and  dep.  of  Huila,  3° 
N.  lat.  ;  1,512  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Magdalena  at  its  confluence  with  the  R.  Neiva  ;  pop.  21,850. 
The  town  is  situated  in  a  hot  but  healthy  valley.  Founded 
in  1612.  Its  streets  are  wide,  bordered  by  fine  houses. 
Important  commercial,  industrial,  and  agricultural  centre. 
Much  of  the  export  and  import  trade  is  gathered  and  dis- 
tributed here  over  wide  regions.  Possesses  textile,  "Panama" 
traw  hat,  fibre  hammock  factories,  potteries,  etc.  Its  cocoa 
and  cattle  are  widely  known. 

NEMOCON,  prov.  of  Zipaquira,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
5°  N.  lat.  ;  8,792  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  4,300.  Founded 
in  1537.     Great  centre  of  the  salt  trade  ;  also  coal  mines. 

NOVITA,  Choco  district,  4°  36'  N.  lat.  ;  575  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  ;  pop.  6,100.  The  town, 
founded  in  1709,  is  built  on  piles.  Centre  of  the  alluvial  gold 
and  platinum  trade. 

NUNCHIA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Nunchia,  dep.  of  Boyaca, 
5°  28'  N.  lat.  ;  1,408  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  2,890.  Centre 
of  tropical  agricultural  produce. 

O 

OCANA.,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Ocafia,  dep.  Norte  de  Santan- 
der,  8°  N.  lat.  ;  3,824  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rio  Grande  ;  pop.  16,800.  Well-built  town,  founded  in  1576, 
on  a  sandy  plain.  Commercial  centre ;  exports  coffee, 
aniseed,  hides,  palm  straw  hats.  Coal  and  lead  deposits  are 
found  in  the  neighbourhood. 

P 
PACHO,  prov.  of  Zipaquira,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  5°  N. 
at.  ;   6,076  ft.  above  sea-level  ;   pop.  15,837.     Iron  and  coal 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  169 

mines.  Formerly  there  was  an  important  foundry  here,  but 
it  is  now  closed.  This  district  supplies  Zipaquira  and  Bogota 
with  firewood.     Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry. 

PACORA,  prov.  Salamina,  dep.  of  Caldas,  5°  30'  N.  lat.  ; 
5,475  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  11,300.     Cattle-raising  centre. 

PADUA,  prov.  Centro,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  22'  N.  lat.  ; 
8,587  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,424. 

PAIPA,  prov.  of  Tundama,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  47'  N.  lat.  ; 
8,072  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  of  the  same 
name.  Near  here  are  the  plains  known  as  Pantano  de  Vergas, 
where  Bolivar  gained  a  victory  in  1819.     Agricultural  centre 

PALMA.     See  La  Palma. 

PALMIRA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Palmira,  dep.  of  El  Valle. 
3°33'N.  lat.  ;  3,132  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  24,312.  Impor- 
tant industrial  and  agricultural  centre.  Well-equipped  sugar 
factories.  Palmira  tobacco  is  much  sought  after.  One  of  the 
principal  tobacco  markets  in  the  Republic.  A  half-yearly 
general  market  held  here. 

PAMPLONA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Pamplona,  dep.  of  Norte 
de  Santander,  7°  12'  N.  lat.  ;  7,560  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop. 
14,800.  Old  town  founded  in  1549,  but  has  suffered  much 
from  earthquakes.  Was  formerly  a  great  mining  depot,  rich 
gold  mines  being  worked  in  its  neighbourhood,  now  exhausted. 
Coffee  trade  occupies  most  attention. 

PANDI,  prov.  of  Sumapaz,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  13' 
N.  lat.  ;  3,273  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  Sumapaz  ;  pop. 
4,500.  Agricultural  centre.  Is  celebrated  for  its  natural 
rock  bridge  (Puenta  Icononzo),  about  39  ft.  long  by  9  ft.  wide 
spanning  the  Sumapaz  at  an  elevation  of  over  250  ft.  There 
is  also  a  curious  red-painted,  inscribed  rock. 

PASTO,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Pasto  and  the  dep.  of  Narifio, 
1°  30'  N.  lat.  ;  8,660  ft.  above  sea-level,  situated  on  a  small 
fertile  plateau  at  the  foot  of  the  volcano  of  the  same  name  ; 
pop.  27,800.  Founded  in  1539.  Is  the  seat  of  a  bishop. 
Possesses  wide  streets,  lit  by  electricity  and  fine  public  build- 
ings,   including   a   school    of    mines.      A    commercial    and 


170  COLOMBIA 

manufacturing  centre.  Textiles  (wool  and  cotton),  felt  and 
straw  hats,  and  varnished  wood-work  produced  here.  The 
Pasto  varnish,  derived  from  the  eleagia  utilis,  is  widely 
celebrated  and  deserves  attention. 

PENON.     See  El  Penon. 

PENSILVANIA,  prov.  of  Manzanares,  dep.  of  Caldas  ;  pop. 
10,200.     Agricultural  and  mining  centre. 

PEREIRA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Peria,  dep.  of  Caldas  ; 
4,675  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  banks  of  the  R.  Otun  ;  pop. 
18,500.  Agricultural  centre.  Chief  cattle  market  of  the 
department ;   a  half-yearly  fair  is  held  here. 

PESCA,  prov.  of  Sugumuxi,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  6'  N.  lat.  ; 
8,735  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  ; 
pop.  10,700.  An  ancient  town  of  the  Chibchas  Indians. 
Large  market  for  wool  and  cereals. 

PIEDECUESTA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Piedecuesta,  dep.  of 
Santander,  6°  43'  N.  lat.  ;  3,312  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the 
Rio  de  Oro  ;  pop.  8,100.  Manufactures  :  straw  hats,  cigars, 
fruit  preserves.  Agricultural  products  :  fruit,  cocoa,  coffee, 
tobacco,  cotton. 

PLATA.     See  La  Plata. 

PITALITO,  prov.  of  Garzon,  dep.  of  Huila,  2°  10'  N. 
lat.  ;  4,445  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  12,550.  Prosperous 
agricultural  district. 

POPAYAN,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Popayan  and  of  the  dep. 
of  the  Cauca,  2°  26'  N.  lat.  ;  5,900  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop. 
18,725.  Was  founded  in  1536  by  Belalcazar  on  a  great  table- 
land, at  the  foot  of  the  extinct  volcano  Sotara  (15,892  ft.), 
and  some  17  m.  from  the  active  volcano  Purace  (16,103  ft.). 
It  enjoys  an  equably  cool  spring  climate,  but  is  subject  to 
violent  electrical  storms  and  earthquakes.  It  played  a  leading 
part  in  the  old  Spanish  and  early  revolutionary  days,  and 
still  possesses  many  remarkable  buildings,  but  its  commercial 
importance  is  on  the  decline.  The  Government  and  depart- 
mental offices,  the  University  of  Cauca,  the  chief  schools  all 
occupy  fine  old  convents.     There  are,  including  the  cathedral, 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  171 

ten  churches.  Besides  the  large  covered  market-place,  there 
are  two  banks,  schools,  hospital,  theatres,  a  bull  ring,  and 
very  beautiful  gardens.  The  municipality  has  built  two 
handsome  bridges  and  short  lengths  of  good  roads  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  town.  Woollen  fabrics  are 
produced  for  local  consumption. 

PUEBLOVIEJO,  prov.  of  Sugumuxi,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  24' 
N.  lat.  ;   pop.  9,000.     Agricultural  centre. 

PUEBLOVIEJO,  prov.  of  Santa  Marta,  dep.  of  Magdalena, 
10°   59'   N.    lat.  ;     404   ft.    above   sea-level ;      pop.    6,400. 

Agricultural  centre. 

PUENTE  NACIONAL,  prov.  of  Valez,  dep.  of  Santander, 
5°  46'  N.  lat.  ;  5,279  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  R.  Suarez  ; 
pop.  11,900.     Agricultural  and  coal  and  iron-mining  centre. 

PUERTO  BERRIO,  dep.  of  Antioquia  ;  6°  N.  lat.,  on  the 
Magdalena  ;  pop.  4,500.  Important  fluvial  port,  500  m.  from 
Barranquilla,  and  head  of  the  Medellin  Railway. 

PUERTO  COLOMBIA,  dep.  of  Atlantico,  10°  59'  N.  lat., 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena  ;  pop. 
2,500.  It  is  the  seaport  of  Barranquilla,  some  50  m.  higher 
up  the  river,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  It 
possesses  a  long  pier  for  sea-going  steamers,  extensive  quays 
and  warehouses.  Also  known  as  Savanilla,  from  the  old 
settlement,  now  a  suburb  of  the  port. 

PUERTO  WILCHES,  prov.  of  Bucaramanga,  dep.  of 
Santander,  port  on  the  Magdalena  and  head  of  the  Puerto 
Wilches  Railway  ;    pop.  2,600. 

PUPIALES,  prov.  of  Ipiales,  dep.  of  Narifio,  0°  55'  N.  lat.  ; 
10,012  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,000.  Built  on  the  site  of 
an  Indian  town  ;  curious  ruins  still  to  be  seen.  Agricultural 
centre. 

Q 

QUIBDO,  cap.  of  the  Intendencia  del  Choco,  5°  37'  N.  lat.  ; 

138  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  15,750.     A  busy  trading  centre, 

where  European  goods  are  exchanged  for  gold  dust,  rubber, 

vegetable  ivory,  and  other  forest  products.     But  the  chief 


172  COLOMBIA 

industry  of  the  whole  district  is  the  working  of  the  platinum 
and  gold  placer  mines. 

QUIPILE,  prov.  of  Facatativa,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  46'  N.  lat.  ;  over  4,300  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,000. 
Agricultural  centre. 

R 

RAMIRIQUI,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Marquez,  dep.  of  Boyaca, 
5°  24'  M.  lat.  ;  7,452  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,800.  This 
is  the  old  priestly  centre  of  the  casique  of  Tunja,  and  many 
ruins  with  curious  hieroglyphics  still  remain.  Manufactures  of 
blankets,  cloaks,  etc.     Agricultural  and  coal-mining  centre. 

REMEDIOS,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  7°  N.  lat.,  2,348  ft.  above 
sea-level ;  pop.  6,267.  Founded  in  1560,  on  account  of  its 
extraordinary  rich  alluvial  gold  deposits,  which  are  still 
worked. 

RICAURTE,  prov.  of  Girardot,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  16'  N.  lat.  ;  1,093  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,950.  Excel- 
lent tobacco  grown  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  large  cigar  factory 
in  town.  Cattle  breeding  carried  on  extensively  .  Thermal 
sulphur  springs. 

Also  Ricaurte,  prov.  of  Barbacoas,  dep.  of  Narifio  ;  pop. 
3,100. 

RIO  DE  ORO,  cap.  prov.  del  Sur,  dep.  of  the  Magdalena, 
8°  N.  lat.  ;  over  4,200  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,900.  Mining 
and  agricultural  centre. 

RIOHACHA,  cap.  prov.  of  Riohacha,  dep.  of  the  Magdalena 
1 1°  33'  N.  lat.  Was  founded  in  1545  under  the  name  of  "  Our 
Lady  of  the  Snows  "  ;  pop.  9,400.  Situated  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  of  the  same  name  on  the  Goajira  Peninsula.  Busy 
trading  centre  ;  an  important  weekly  market  is  held.  Chief 
exports  :  cattle,  horses,  divi-divi,  rubber,  vegetable  ivory,  gold 
dust,  hides,  and  timber. 

RIONEGRO,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  N.  lat.  ;  7,058  ft.  above 
sea-level ;  pop.  15,231.  A  pleasant  residential  town,  not  far 
from  Medellin. 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  173 

RIONEGRO,  prov.  of  Bucaramanga,  dep.  of  Santander, 
6°  58'  N.  lat.  ;  3,175  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  14,300. 
Important  agricultural  centre. 

RIOSUCIO,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Riosucio,  dep.  of  Caldas, 
5°  19'  N.  lat.  ;  5,942  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name  ;  pop.  16,500.  Gold  and  silver  mining  districts. 
The  alluvium  of  the  Rio  Sucio  are  very  rich.  A  busy 
commercial  centre. 

Also  Riosucio,  prov.  of  Atrato,  district  of  Choco  ;  pop.  950. 

ROLDANILLO,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Roldanillo,  dep.  of  the 
El  Valle  ;  4°  23'  N.  lat.  ;  3,152  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop. 
9,200.     Agricultural  centre. 

ROSARIO  (EL),  prov.  of  Cucuta,  dep.  of  Norte  de  San- 
tander, 7°  34'  N.  lat.  ;  1,133  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,300. 
Agricultural  centre.  Founded  in  1734.  Birthplace  of  General 
Santander  ;  and  here  the  Congress  was  held  which  issued  the 
first  Constitution  of  the  Gran  Colombia. 

Also  El  Rosario,  prov.  of  Juamanbu,  dep.  of  Narino ; 
pop.  3,900. 

S 

SABANALARGA,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  41 '  N.  lat. ;  1,642  ft. 
above  sea-level ;  pop.  4,400.     Important  cattle-raising  centre. 

SABANALARGA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  that  name,  dep.  of 
Atlantico,  10°  40'  N.  lat.  ;  pop.  16,000.  Centre  of  an 
important  cattle-raising  district. 

SABOYA,  Prov.  Occidente,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  31'  N.  lat.  ; 
9,194  ft.  above  sea-level,  near  the  R.  Suarez  ;  pop.  11,572. 
Agricultural  centre. 

SAHAGUN,  prov.  of  Chinu,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  8°  9'  N. 
lat.  ;  406  ft.  above  sea ;  pop.  10,100.  Cattle-breeding  and 
agricultural  centre. 

SALAMINA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Salamina,  dep.  of  Caldas, 
5°  23'  N.  lat.  ;  pop.  18,200.  Agricultural  and  cattle-breeding 
centre.     Salt  mines. 

Also  Salamina,  prov.  of  Santa  Marta,  dep.  of  Magdalena; 
pop.  2,800. 


174  COLOMBIA 

SALAZAR,  prov.  of  Cucuta,  dep.  of  Norte  de  Santander, 
7°  33'  N.  lat.  ;  2,797  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name.  Founded  in  1553  for  the  working  of  the  cele- 
brated San  Pedro  silver  mines.  Rich  coal  seams  abound. 
At  present  coffee  planting  is  the  chief  industry.  An  important 
fair  is  held  here  annually. 

SAMACA,  prov.  del  Centro,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  29'  N.  lat.  ; 
pop.  5,000.  Centre  of  cereal  trade.  Possesses  foundry  and 
textile  factories. 

SAMANIEGO,  prov.  of  Tuquerres,  dep.  of  Narifio  ;  pop. 
9,900.  Important  gold  centre.  Several  quartz  mines  are 
equipped  with  English  and  American  machinery  and  capital. 

SAMPUES,  prov.  of  Sinceljo,  dep.  of  Bolivar ;  pop.  6,000. 
Cattle-breeding  and  agricultural  centre. 

SAN  AGUSTIN,  prov.  of  Manzanares,  dep.  of  Caldas  ;  pop. 
5,900.  Agriculture  and  cattle.  Close  by  here  are  interesting 
remains  of  an  old  and  forgotten  civilization. 

SAN  ANDRES,  dep.  of  Antioquia  ;  6°  18'  N.  lat.  ;  2,512  ft. 
above  sea-level,  on  the  R.  Guacu  ;  pop.  7,500.  Agricultural 
centres.  On  the  shores  of  Lake  Ortices,  close  by,  choice 
cotton  is  grown. 

SAN  ANDRES,  cap.  of  prov.  of  San  Andrds,  dep.  of  San- 
tander, 6°  39'  N.  lat  ;  6,808  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  R. 
Guaca ;  pop.  12,700.  Agricultural  district.  Close  by  is 
Lake  Ortices,  on  whose  banks  the  best  quality  of  cotton  is 
grown. 

SAN  ANDRfiS  DE  SOTAVENTO,  prov.  of  Chinu,  dep.  of 
Bolivar  ;   pop.  6,800. 

SAN  ANTONIO,  temporary  cap.  of  the  Comisaria  of  Goajira, 
10°  58'  N.  lat.  ;  3,480  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  3,375.  Trading 
centre  for  exchange  of  goods  (horses,  cattle,  and  forest 
products)  with  Indians. 

Also  San  Antonio,  prov.  of  San  Martin,  Meta. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  prov.  of  Manizales,  dep.  of  Caldas  ; 
pop.  10,200.     Agriculture  and  cattle. 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  175 

Also  San  Francisco,  prov.  of  Mompos,  dep.  of  Bolivar  ; 
pop.  2,500. 

SAN  GIL,  cap.  of  prov.  of  San  Gil,  dep.  of  Santander, 
6°  20'  N.  lat.  ;  3,628  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name  ;  pop.  9,970.  Founded  in  1689  as  Villa  de  Santa 
Cruz  y  San  Gil  de  la  Nueva  Baeza.  Possesses  wide  streets, 
with  well-built  private  houses  and  public  edifices ;  good 
water  supply  and  electricity  ;  factories  for  the  production  of 
hats,  blankets,  cotton  sheeting,  etc.  Tobacco  is  largely 
grown. 

SAN  JOSE,  prov.  of  Barbacoas,  dep.  of  Narifio,  1°  38'  N. 
lat.  ;   pop.  4,100.     Agricultural  centre. 

SAN  JUAN,  prov.  of  El  Carmen,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  9°  56' 
N.  lat.  ;   pop.  13,100.     Agricultural  centre. 

SAN  JUAN,  prov.  of  Guaduas,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  50'  N.  lat.  ;  4,087  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,900.  Agri- 
cultural centre,  situated  on  a  plateau  overlooking  the 
Magdalena. 

SAN  JUAN  DE  CESAR,  prov.  of  Riohacha,  dep.  of  Magda- 
lena, 10°  41'  N.  lat.;  460  ft.  above  sea-level;  pop.  4,900. 
Centre  of  tropical  agriculture. 

SAN  LUIS,  prov.  of  Ibague,  dep.  of  Tolima,  4°  N.  lat.  ; 
1,682  ft.  above  sea-level;  pop.  6,500.  Four  gold  and  silver 
mines. 

Also  towns  of  the  same  name  in  Antioquia  and  in  prov.  of 
Ciicuta,  Norte  de  Santander. 

SAN  ONOFRE,  prov.  of  Sincelejo,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  9°  47' 
N.  lat.  ;  pop.  11,300.  Situated  in  a  plain,  celebrated  for  its 
rice  fields. 

SANTA  ANA,  prov.  of  Banco,  dep.  of  Magdalena,  9°  20' 
N.  lat.  ;    pop.  5,400.     Agricultural  centre. 

Also  towns  of  same  name  in  prov.  of  Ricaurte,  Boyaca,  and 
prov.  of  Honda,  Tolima. 

SANTANDER,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Santander,  dep.  of  Cauca  ; 
pop.  9,900. 


176  COLOMBIA 

SANTA  BARBARA,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  5°  49'  N.  lat.  ;  pop. 
13,000.  Agricultural  and  mining  centre.  Coffee  and  tobacco  ; 
coal,  salt,  and  limestone. 

SANTA  MARTA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Santa  Marta  and 
dep.  of  the  Magdalena,  11°  15'  N.  lat.;  pop.  8,350.  An 
excellent  harbour  on  the  Atlantic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Man- 
zanares.  Founded  in  1525.  Possesses  cathedral,  public 
library,  hospital,  many  schools,  covered  market,  good  water 
service  and  electric  light.  The  private  houses,  almost  all  of 
only  one  storey,  are  commodious  and  elegant.  A  line  of  small 
steamers  connects  Santa  Marta  with  Barranquilla,  and  a  rail- 
way runs  out  to  Cienaga  and  Fundacion.  Active  commercial 
centre  for  the  central  and  northern  sections  of  the  department, 
but  is  chiefly  interested  in  the  enormous  and  fast-developing 
banana  trade. 

SANTA  ROSA  DE  CABAL,  prov.  of  Pereira,  dep.  of  Caldas, 
4°  35'  N.  lat.  ;  5,576  ft.  above  sea-level.  A  centre  of  the 
"  Panama  "  straw  hat  industry. 

SANTA  ROSA  DE  OSOS,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  30'  N.  lat.  ; 
8,568  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  15,800.  A  centre  of  alluvial 
gold  mining. 

Also  towns  of  Santa  Rosa  in  prov.  of  Cartagena,  Bolivar, 
pop.  2,600  ;  prov.  of  Tundama,  Boyaca,  pop.  5,400  ;  prov.  of 
Caldas,  Cauca,  pop.  1 ,200 ;  and  prov.  of  Guaduas,  Tolima, 
pop.  5,000. 

SANTO  DOMINGO,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  26'  N.  lat.  ;  over 
5,800  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  9,746.  Situated  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Central  Cordillera,  between  Medellin  and 
Puerto  Berrio.  A  commercial,  mining,  and  agricultural 
centre.     Cattle-rearing   receives   considerable   attention. 

SANTUARIO,  prov.  of  Riosucio,  dep.  of  Caldas,  6°  N.  lat.  ; 
6,894  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,700.     Agriculture  and  cattle. 
Town  of  same  name  in  dep.  of  Antioquia,  pop.  7,600. 

SAN  VICENTE,  prov.  of  Zapatoca,  dep.  of  Santander, 
6°  40'  N.  lat.  ;  1,642  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,400. 
Agricultural  centre. 

Towns  of  the  same  name  in  the  prov.  of  Tulua,  El  Valle  ; 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  177 

prov.  of  Zapotoca,  Santander  ;    and  in  the  district  of  the 
Caqueta. 

SARAGOZA.     See  Zaragoza. 

SASAIMA,  prov.  Facatativa,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  53'  N.  lat.  ;  over  4,200  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,400. 
Agricultural  centre. 

SEGOVIA,  prov.  of  Pereira,  dep.  of  Caldas  ;  pop.  6,900. 
Agriculture  and  cattle. 

SESQUILE,  prov.  of  Guatavita,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  58'  N.  lat.  ;  8,703  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  4,850.  Large 
salt  mine,  owned  by  the  State,  now  closed  down.  Big 
potteries. 

SILVIA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Silvia,  dep.  of  Cauca,  2°  37'  N.  lat.  ; 
8,275  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,000.  Agricultural  and 
cattle-breeding  centre. 

SINCE,  prov.  of  Corozal,  dep.  of  Bolivar  ;  pop.  16,300. 
Cattle-breeding  and  agricultural  centre. 

SINCELEJO,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Sincelejo,  dep.  of  Bolivar, 
9°  26'  N.  lat.  ;  722  ft.  above  sea-level  ;  pop.  14,000.  A 
picturesque  town  on  a  foot-hill  of  the  Sierra  Flor,  a  spur  of 
the  western  Cordillera.  Possesses  fine  streets  and  buildings, 
and  is  in  direct  communication  for  good  roadways  with  Tolu, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Morrosquillo,  and  Magangu6  on  the  Magdalena. 
A  busy  cattle-breeding  and  agricultural  centre,  well  known 
for  the  excellent  quality  of  its  sugar  production. 

SOACHA,  prov.  of  Bogota,  dep.  of  Cundanamarca,  4°  34' 
N.  lat.  ;  8,436  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,200.  Agricultural 
centre. 

SOATA,  cap.  of  prov.  del  Norte,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  6°  N.  lat.  ; 
6,710  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,650.  Commercial  and 
agricultural  centre.  Chief  crops  :  sugar-cane  and  dates. 
Curious  fosiliferous  caves  in  the  neighbourhood. 

SOCORRO,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Socorro,  dep.  of  Santander, 
6°  16'  N.  lat.;  4,120  ft.  above  sea-level;  pop.  11,200. 
Founded  in  1681  ;   seat  of  a  bishopric.     It  was  here  that  the 


178  COLOMBIA 

Comuneros  insurrection  against  Spain  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury began,  and  here  again,  in  1810,  that  the  first  step  towards 
independence  took  place.  Possesses  factories  for  the  produc- 
tion of  straw  hats,  blankets,  fruit  preserves,  etc.  An 
agricultural  centre. 

SOCOTA,  prov.  of  Valderama,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  57'  N. 
lat.  ;  8,010  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,100.  Large  tanneries 
here.   Well  known  for  its  cheeses,  and  horse  and  mule-breeding. 

SOGAMOSO,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Sugumuxi,  dep.  of  Boyaca, 
5°  38'  N.  lat.  ;  8,325  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  Moniquira 
river  ;  pop.  14,647.  The  ancient  Sugumuxi  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Chibchas  priests,  and  was  captured  by  Quesada 
in  1537.  Busy  commercial  centre  for  cereals,  cattle  hides, 
etc. 

SOLEDAD,  prov.  of  Barranquilla,  dep.  of  Atlantico,  10°  57' 
N.  lat.  ;  pop.  8,200.  Situated  on  a  low-lying,  but  a  damp 
plain.     A  centre  of  cotton  weaving. 

Town  of  same  name  in  section  three  of  Comisaria  of 
Goajiro. 

SONSON,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  5°  43'  N.  lat.  ;  8,364  ft.  above 
sea-level ;  pop.  29,350.  Founded  in  1785  ;  was  the  capital 
of  the  former  dep.  of  the  same  name.  A  flourishing  town,  the 
centre  of  a  busy  agricultural,  industrial  and  mining  district. 
In  the  town  are  factories  for  the  production  of  carpets,  cotton, 
and  woollen  fabrics,  straw  hats,  etc.  Large  herds  of  cattle 
are  raised  on  the  surrounding  fertile  fields.  There  are  gold, 
silver,  and  salt  mines  close  by. 

SOPETRAN,  dep.  of  Antioquia  ;  6°  22'  N.  lat.  ;  2,476  ft. 
above  sea-level  ;  pop.  10,600.  Pleasantly  situated  amidst 
palm  groves.  Is  a  centre  of  the  "  Panama  "  straw  hat 
industry.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  gold  and  coal  mines  ;  also 
salt  springs. 

SOTAQUIRA,  prov.  Centro,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  44'  N.  lat.  ; 
about  8,880  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  of 
the  same  name  ;  pop.  8,637.  A  centre  of  textile  production 
and  agriculture. 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  179 

SUAITA,  prov.  of  Socorro,  dep.  of  Santander,  5°  58'  N.  lat.  ; 
5,679  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,400.  Agricultural  district, 
producing  maize,  cotton,  etc. 

SUBACHOQUE,  prov.  of  Facatativa,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  52'  N.  lat.  ;  8,821  ft.  above  sea-level  ;  pop.  6,900.  Iron, 
coal,  and  salt  mines.  The  important  iron  mines  and  foundry 
of  La  Pradera  are  in  the  neighbourhood. 

SUPIA,  prov.  of  Riosucio,  dep.  of  Caldas,  5°  23'  N.  lat.  ; 
over  4,000  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,700.  Gold  and  silver 
mining  district.  The  gold  mines  are  the  property  of  the  State, 
and  are  leased  to  an  English  Company  (the  Colombian  Mining 
and  Exploration  Company),  who  have  installed  electric  power. 

T 

TAMBO,  prov.  of  Popayan,  dep.  of  Cauca,  2°  26'  N.  lat.  ; 
pop.  13,000.     Mining  and  agricultural  centre. 

TAMBO,  prov.  of  Pasto,  dep.  of  Narino,  1°  23'  N.  lat.  ; 
7,288  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,855.  Agricultural  and 
mining. 

TAMESIS,  dep.  of  Antioquia  ;  4,820  ft.  above  sea-level ; 
pop.  10,000.  Centre  of  coffee-growing  and  cattle-breeding 
district. 

TENA,  prov.  of  Tequendama,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  37'  N.  lat.  ;  4,284  ft.  above  sea-level  ;  pop.  5,200.  Ancient 
pleasure  resort  of  the  Chibchas  chiefs  ;  reported  to  be  the 
hiding-place  of  vast  treasures. 

TIBANA,  prov.  of  Marquez,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  19'  N.  lat.  ; 
8,256  ft.  above  sea-level,  near  the  R.  Jenesano  ;  pop.  8,655. 
Manufacturing  and  agricultural  centre. 

TIMANA,  prov.  of  Garzon,dep.  of  Huila,  2°  16'  N.  lat.  ; 
4,438  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,700.  Founded  in  1537  on 
site  of  an  old  Indian  town.  Possesses  valuable  deposits  of 
emery,  amethysts  and  rock  crystal.  Considerable  factories  of 
"  Panama  "  straw  hats,  pottery,  etc. 

TIMBIO,  prov.  of  Popayan,  dep.  of  Cauca,  2°  22'  N.  lat.  ; 
pop.  12,700.     Agricultural  and  mining  centre. 


180  COLOMBIA 

TIMBIQUI,  capital  of  province  of  Micay,  dep.  of  Cauca, 
2°  41'  N.  lat.  ;    pop.  11,900.     Great  gold-mining  centre. 

TITIRIBI,  dep.  of  Antioquia  ;  5°  56'  N.  lat.;  5,187  ft. 
above  sea-level ;  pop.  13,700.  Founded  in  1313,  in  a  very 
mountainous  part  of  the  Cordillera  Central.  A  great  mining 
centre,  rich  gold  and  silver  deposits  being  worked.  Here  are 
also  iron  and  coal  mines,  with  foundry  annexed. 

TOCAIMA,  prov.  of  Tequendama,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
5°  26'  N.  lat.  ;  1,416  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,300.  Thermal 
sulphur  springs  bathing  station.  Formerly  both  gold  and 
copper  were  mined  here. 

TOLU,  prov.  of  Sincelejo,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  9°  32',  on  the 
Gulf  of  Morrosquillo ;  pop.  4,078.  Founded  in  1535  by 
Alonso  de  Heridia.  A  centre  of  commerce  for  balm  of  Tolu, 
resins,  timber,  sugar,  lard,  etc.  This  is  the  town  of  Tolu 
Viejo.  New  Tolu  is  a  little  farther  south,  and  has  a  population 
of  5,528. 

TOTA,  prov.  of  Sugumuxi,  dep.  of  Boyaca,  5°  26'  N.  lat.  ; 
close  to  the  lake  of  same  name  ;  pop.  5,200.  Textile  products 
and  cattle  breeding. 

TULUA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Tulua,  dep.  of  El  Valle,  4°  N.  lat. ; 
3,319  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  river  of  the  same  name.  The 
Spanish  town  was  founded  in  1794  on  the  ruins  of  an  old  Indian 
stronghold  ;  pop.  10,800.  Extensive  cocoa  plantations  ;  also 
cattle  farms. 

TUMACO,  capital  prov.  of  Nunez,  dep.  of  Narifio,  1°  49' 
N.  lat.,  situated  on  an  island  of  the  same  name,  close  to  the 
Pacific  coast  ;  pop.  11,700.  Important  commercial  port. 
Seat  of  a  Custom  house.  The  town  is  very  picturesque, 
surrounded  by  palms  and  other  tropical  vegetation. 

TUNJA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  the  Centro,  and  the  dep.  of 
Boyaca,  5°  32'  N.  lat.  ;  9,168  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  8,791. 
This  is  the  ancient  Hunza,  cap.  of  the  Zaque,  or  chief  of  the 
Muyscas  Indians,  the  Spanish  city  having  been  founded  in 
1539  by  Gonzalo  Suarez  Rondon.  It  was  long  one  of  the 
chief  towns  of  the  colonial  days,  and  possesses  besides  its 
cathedral  (1540),  episcopal  palace,  Convent  of  Santa  Clara 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  TOWNS  181 

(1572),  many  fine  old  Spanish  mansions.  Eclipsed  for  a 
time,  it  has  regained  its  commercial  place  in  the  community. 
There  are  numerous  small  factories,  the  Banco  Boyaca, 
Union  Comercial,  the  Compania  de  Energia  Electrica  (which 
lights  the  town),  the  Compania  Nueva  del  Acueducto  (pro- 
viding a  good  water  supply),  open  market,  where  periodical 
fairs  are  held,  hospital,  theatre  and  other  establishments.  Its 
main  source  of  activity  is  due  to  agriculture.  There  are 
thermal  mineral  springs  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  also  coal 
mines. 

TUQUERRES,  capital  of  prov.  of  Tuquerres,  dep.  of  Narino  ; 
1°  N  lat.  ;  over  10,000  ft.  above  sea-level,  situated  in  a  plain, 
overlooked  by  the  three  great  volcanoes  :  Tuquerres,  Cumbal, 
and  Pasto ;  pop.  15,650.  Industrial  and  agricultural 
centre. 

TURBACO,  prov.  of  Cartagena,  dep.  of  Bolivar,  10°  18' 
N.  lat.  ;  711  ft.  above  sea-level,  situated  on  a  hill  in  close 
proximity  to  Cartagena,  of  which  it  is  a  pleasure  and 
health  resort ;  pop.  6,000.  Possesses  fine  mineral  water 
baths. 

U 
UBALA,  prov.  of  Guavio,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  45' 
N.  lat.  ;   6,253  ft.  above  sea-level ;   pop.  6,400.     Copper  and 
iron  mines. 

UBAQU£,  prov.  del  Oriente,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  30' 
N.  lat.  ;  5,856  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,300.  Popular 
holiday  and  health  resort  for  Bogatanos.  Site  of  an  ancient 
Indian  town,  near  a  sacred  lake. 

UBATE,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Ubate,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
5°  N.  lat.  ;  8,469  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  9,600.  Built  on 
the  site  of  an  old  Indian  town,  on  the  Sabana  of  Bogota. 
Centre  of  a  very  active  cattle-breeding  and  agricultural 
district. 

UNE,  prov.  del  Oriente,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca,  4°  24' 
N.  lat. ;  8,758  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  4,850.  An 
agricultural  centre. 

13— (3248) 


182  COLOMBIA 

UNION.     See  La  Union. 

URRAS,  dep.  of  Antioquia,  6°  N.  lat.  ;  6,326  ft.  above 
sea-level,  on  the  R.  Panderisco ;  pop.  13,000.  Centre  of 
cattle-raising  and  agricultural  district.     Some  rich  salt  mines. 

V 

VALLEDUPAR,  cap.  prov.  of  Valledupar,  dep.  of  Magda- 
lena,  10°  21'  N.  lat.  ;  436  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Guatapuri,  in  a  fertile  plain ;  pop.  7,300. 
Agricultural  centre.     Silver,  copper,  and  lead  mines. 

VEGA.    See  ~La.  Vega. 

VELEZ,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Velez,  dep.  of  Santander  ; 
5°  54'  N.  lat.  ;  7,190  ft.  above  sea-level,  built  on  the  slopes  of 
a  mountain  ;  pop.  8,600.     Agricultural  centre. 

VERGERA,  prov.  of  Guaduas,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca ; 
5°  N.  lat.  ;  4,268  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,800.  Agricultural 
and  mining  district. 

VILLAVICENCIO,  capital  of  the  Intendencia  del  Meta ; 
4°  15  N.  lat.  ;  1,496  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  4,800.  Situated 
in  a  pretty  valley,  surrounded  by  forests,  in  which  the  wild 
cocoa-tree  grows.  Trade  mostly  in  rubber  and  forest  products. 
Coal  seams  abundant  in  this  district. 

VILLETA,  prov.  of  Facatativa,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca  ; 
4°  56'  N.  lat. ;  2,753  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  5,600.  Situated 
in  a  pleasant,  but  rather  hot  valley.  Copper  and  iron  mines  ; 
sugar-cane  plantations.  There  are  well-known  thermal 
baths  here. 

VIOTA,  prov.  of  Tequendama,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca, 
4°  27'  N.  lat.  ;  4,268  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  7,200. 
Agricultural  district. 

Y 

YACOPI,  prov.  Guaduas,  dep.  of  Cundinamarca ;  5°  13' 
N.  lat.  ;  5,022  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  6,400. 

YARUMAL,  dep.  of  Antioquia  ;  6°  49'  N.  lat.  ;  7,372  ft. 
above  sea-level ;  pop.  21,250.     It  is  in  direct  communication 


LIST   OF    IMPORTANT   TOWNS  183 

with  the  ports  of  Valdivia  and  Raudal  on  the  Cauca.     A 
commercial,   agricultural,  cattle-raising  and  mining  centre. 

YOLOMBO,  dep.  of  Antioquia ;  6°  35'  N.  lat. ;  4,823  ft. 
above  sea-level ;  pop.  13,550.    Agricultural  and  mining  centre. 

Z 

ZAPATOCA,  cap.  of  prov.  of  Zapatoca,  dep.  of  Santander  ; 
6°  35'  N.  lat.  ;  5,652  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop.  10,600.  Situa- 
ted on  a  plateau  surrounded  by  hills.  Chief  industry,  manu- 
facture of  "  Panama  "  straw  hats.  Cultivation  of  tobacco 
and  other  tropical  plants.     Lead  mines. 

ZARAGOZA,  dep.  of  Antioquia;  7°  21'  N.  lat.  ;  674  ft. 
above  sea-level  ;  an  important  port  on  the  Nechi,  an  affluent 
of  the  Magdalena ;  pop.  2,452.  Founded  in  1581.  A 
commercial,  and  also  gold  (placer)  and  coal-mining  centre. 

ZIPAQUIRA,  cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Zipaquira,  dep.  of  Cundi- 
namarca ;  4°  46'  N.  lat.  ;  8,700  ft.  above  sea-level ;  pop. 
9,917.  Picturesque,  well-built  town,  situated  on  a  plateau, 
at  the  foot  of  a  huge  rock-salt  hill.  Salt,  lead,  iron,  sulphur, 
and  coal-mining.  Busy  market  for  these  minerals  and  also 
sugar,  rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  textiles.  Terminus  of  the 
Ferroccaril  del  Norte. 


APPENDIX  A 

LIST  OF  STEAMSHIP  LINES  AND  RIVER  SERVICES 

Colombia    is    fairly  well  served   by  passenger   and    cargo 
steamship  services. 

Atlantic  Ports 

From  English  Ports. — Southampton  :  The  Royal  Mail 
Steam  Packet  Company  :  fortnightly  service  passenger  and 
cargo  via  New  York  and  the  West  Indies  to  Puerto  Colombia 
and  Cartagena.  [This  company,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Scrutton  Line,  has  a  cargo  service  from  various  English  and 
Continental  ports  to  the  West  Indies,  calling  at  Colombian 
ports  when  cargo  offers.] 

Liverpool :  Leyland  Line  fortnightly  passenger  and 
cargo  service  to  Puerto  Colombia  and  Catagena.  Harrison 
Line  monthly  passenger  and  cargo  service  to  the  same  ports. 
Elders  and  Fyffes,  a  weekly  service  to  Santa  Marta,  out- 
ward passengers  only.  [This  line  varies  its  English  port  of 
sailing  from  time  to  time.] 

From  Continental  Ports. — The  Compagnie  Generale  Trans- 
atlantique  have  two  monthly  sailings  from  French  ports 
for  Colon  and  Puerto  Colombia,  calling  at  Cartagena  when 
required. 

The  Compania  Transatlantica  have  a  monthly  sailing  from 
Barcelona  to  the  West  Indies  and  Colombian  ports. 

The  Hamburg-American  Line,  sail  from  Hamburg  twice  a 
month,  calling  at  Puerto  Colombia  and  Cartagena  via  New 
York. 

La  Veloce,  Navigacione  Italiana  a  Vapore,  has  a  monthly 
sailing  from  Genoa  to  Puerto  Colombia. 

From  the  United  States. — Besides  the  Royal  Steam  Packet 
and  the  Hamburg-American  (European  service)  Lines,  which 
call  at  New  York  on  the  outward  and  homeward  voyages, 
the  latter  company's  Atlas  Service  has  a  weekly  sailing 
from  New  York  to  Puerto  Colombia,  calling  at  Cartagena 
on  the  outward  and  Santa  Marta  on  the  homeward  voyages. 

185 


186  COLOMBIA 

The  United  Fruit  Company  has  a  weekly  passenger  and 
cargo  service  from  New  York  to  Santa  Marta,  the  ships  calling 
at  Jamaica,  Colon,  Cartagena  and  Puerto  Colombia.  It 
offers  special  facilities  for  the  pleasure  or  tourist  traffic 

Pacific  Ports 

Buenaventura  and  Tumaco  are  visited  fortnightly  by  a 
coasting  service  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company 
(Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company)  from  the  port  Panama. 
The  German  Kosmos  liners  also  call  at  these  ports,  but 
somewhat  irregularly. 

River  Service 

Magdalena. — The  "  Empresa  Aliadas  "  (an  English  Com- 
pany) has  a  fleet  of  twenty-nine  stern-wheeled  steamers 
(total  tonnage,  6,000),  which  sail  up  to  La  Dorada  and  up  the 
Cauca,  from  Barranquilla.  The  "  Empresa  Hanseatica " 
has  a  fleet  of  seven  steamers  (total  tonnage,  1,269),  sailing 
from  both  Cartagena  and  Barranquilla.  Both  companies 
run  weekly  mail  services  for  Bogota  and  the  intervening 
ports  ;  and  the  former  has  an  intermediate  service.  The 
other  companies  are  the  Compania  Antioqueha  de  Transportes, 
two  steamers  (486  tons).  The  Compania  de  Santa  Marta 
Wharf,  with  regular  service  between  Barranquilla  and  Santa 
Marta  (two  steamers,  60  tons).  The  Compania  de  Transportes 
de  Soto  (three  steamers,  120  tons). 

Cauca. — The  Compania  de  Navegacion  del  Rio  Cauca, 
runs  a  good  service  between  Cali  and  Cartago,  124  miles. 

San  Juan. — The  Anglo-Colombian  Development  Company 
runs  a  regular  steam  service  from  Buenaventura  to  San 
Pablo,  over  350  miles. 

Patia. — At  Tumaco  there  are  five  small  steamers  which 
ply  up  the  Patia  and  the  Telembi  to  Barbacoas. 

Zulia. — There  is  a  good  steam  service  of  steamers  from 
Guerto  Villamizar,  united  to  Cucuta  by  rail,  to  the  Venezuelan 
port  of  Maracaibo. 

Meta. — An  irregular  steamboat  service  is  kept  up  between 
Ciudadl  Bolivar  (Venezuela)  and  Orocue  (fourteen  days  up 
stream  from  Ciudad  Bolivar,  and  seven  days  homeward). 


# 


' 

,-sl|.,l  

■ 
■-, ,  j 

O  =   504   got 

■  n  ■  '!<» "'  <■■■■ 

....!■■)    -    one 

38-9  cents 

bolivianos 

■     ■ 

'"  '■■ 

Gold 

5468 

Milreis  paper 

16d. 

■1    ,        8-93      :: 

Cold 

' 

240.1. 
1-866    1 

i i iy 

l.s.t. 
(63  ( 

About 
ill 

■ 

■  i. il.lv                   111'" 

.....1,1  pi    . 
■ 

1 

■ 
,  001 

„ 

1<J  1 

■ 



200d 

lOOceni 

ZOd 

.i    -    |2  guldi  ti 

ECU*DO" 

G 

S„crf 

4878 

£1  =  1    condor    or    10 
paper  money. 

1 

48d! 

i 

9-6d. 

CI  =  25  francs. 

Gold 

I-00S 

' 

54.50d" 

largely  used. 

Gold 

«-619d 

■9728 

P,  ...  papiei 

■       ■ 
,.  1  HO] 
(1910) 

Ouotations  are  often  made  in  gold 

dollars.at  th.  rat.  of    1  .  5   | 

(The  gold  peso  is  used  far   official 

Peru 

Gold 

Sol  (  =   100 

4866J  | 

Sd 

O  =    10  soles,     No  paper  money, 

Uruguay 

Gold 

53d    '" 

Pe*° 

1-034$ 

Ihc  peso  fluctuates,       £1    =    about 

-i;  S7d 

-  '  4Sd  ) 

•965  8 

[9-3  cents 

■     ,.f.Uvares        (The    bolivar 
approximately  =   I  franc  |     N.B, 
Accounts   are   frequently     reckoned 

^Islands 

(British 

urreney) 

APPENDIX   B 


COLOMBIAN  CURRENCY 

Before  1857  the  unit  of  currency  was  the  Peso  Macuquino, 
a  coin  of  fine  silver,  equivalent  to  8  Reales  or  "  decimos  de 
peso."  In  1857  a  system  based  on  the  French  decimal 
coinage  was  adopted,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  issue 
of  gold,  silver,  nickel,  and  bronze  coins.  Very  little,  however, 
was  issued,  the  metallic  coins  in  circulation  being  practically 
all  those  of  foreign  countries  ;  the  real  currency  was  paper, 
which  became  greatly  depreciated.  In  1905  the  Central 
Bank  was  established,  and  the  redemption  of  the  paper  money 
was  entrusted  to  it  ;  this  has  more  recently  been  undertaken 
by  the  Government.  The  ratio  between  the  paper  and  the 
gold  currency  was  fixed  at  10,000  per  cent.,  i.e.,  10,000  dollars 
paper  =  100  dollars  gold,  or  in  other  words  1  dollar  paper  = 
1  centavos. 

By  the  law  of  12th  June,  1907,  the  unit  of  a  gold  peso  or 
dollar  was  established,  equal  to  one-fifth  of  a  pound  sterling, 
of  the  same  fineness  ("916),  and  of  proportionate  weight. 
The  coins  authorised  are  as  follows — 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Nickel. 


5  dollars     =  20s.  -    $4-87 
2\     „  =   10s.  =      2-43 

1  dollar  (100 

centavos)  =     4s.  *97 

dollar     =  4s. 
=  2s. 
„       (peseta)  =  Is. 
(real)    =  6d. 
dollars  (paper)  —  2|d. 
„       =  Id. 


=   $u. 
value 


of  2 


48'6  cents 

243 

121 

5 

2 

1 
dollars 


old) 
dollars   (gold) 


Legal  tender. — Nickel  up  to  the 
{i.e.,  8s.). 
Silver  up  to  the  value  of  10 
{i.e.,  40s.). 

The  paper  dollar  notes  are  the  general  medium  of  currency, 
but  in  the  Atrato  Valley  and  in  Cucuta  and  its  neighbourhood 
silver  coins  predominate. 

187 


APPENDIX  C 

WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES 

The  French  metric  system  is  legal  in  all  the  countries  of 
South  America,  and  is  obligatory  in  the  Customs  houses  and 
other  government  offices.  The  most  important  standards 
are  the  metre  (=  39*37  in.)  and  the  kilogramme  (=  2' 204  lbs.). 
In  commerce,  however,  especially  in  the  interior,  the  older 
systems  often  survive.  These  are  confusing  as  the  same  term 
may  bear  different  values  in  different  countries  or  districts. 
Thus  the  old  Brazilian  system  was  based  on  the  Portuguese 
measures,  which  differed  from  the  Spanish.  In  old  Spain 
itself  the  standards  were  not  quite  uniform,  e.g.,  the  yard 
(vara)  varied  between  0847  and  0834  of  a  metre.  In  the 
South  American  colonies  this  variation  tended  to  increase  ; 
thus  in  Bolivia  and  Chile  the  vara  =  0'836  m.,  in  Argentina 
and  Paraquay  0*866  m.,  and  in  Brazil  11 110  m. 

The  more  important  of  these  older  terms  which  survive 
in  Colombia,  are  given  below  with  the  English  equivalents. 

Colombia 
The  metric  system  was  introduced  into  Colombia  in  1857. 
Vara  (yard)  =  80  cm.  or  0*8  of  a  metre  =  31*496  in. 
Cuadra  =    100  varas  =  87*48  yards,  British. 
Libra     =    1.102  lb.  avoird. 

Arroba  =     25  Col.  lbs.  or     12 J  kilos.,  =  27*55  lb.  avoird. 
Quintal  =  100  Col.  lbs.  or    50  kilos.,  =  110*2o  „ 
Carga     =  250  Col.  lbs.  or  125  kilos.,  =  275*5    „ 


188 


APPENDIX  D 

POSTS  AND  TELEGRAPHS 

The  postal,  telegraph  and  telephone  services  of  Colombia 
are  under  the  charge  of  the  General  Administration  of  Posts 
and  Telegraphs,  but  while  the  telegraphic  and  telephonic 
branches  are  a  State  monopoly,  the  post  office  is  not.  That 
is  to  say,  although  the  existing  postal  organisation  is  at  the 
charge  of  the  Government  the  Fiscal  Code  (Article  517) 
declares  that  private  persons  may  freely  establish  postal 
systems  throughout  the  country. 

From  the  first  years  of  the  Republic  the  Government 
organised  a  postal  service,  which  had  never  been  introduced 
under  the  Colonial  regime.  The  Department  is  regulated  by 
Law  869, 1888,  supplemented  by  the  Organic  Decree  regarding 
the  Postal  and  Telegraph  Departments  of  1892  and 
Decree  881  of  1911.  The  Colombian  Government  joined 
the  Universal  Postal  Union  in  1881,  and  subscribed  to  the 
Postal  Convention  of  Washington,  1897,  and  the  Universal 
Postal  Convention  of  Rome,  1906.  It  has  also  become  a 
subscriber  to  the  Convention  on  Exchange  of  Registered 
and  Postal  Packets,  but  has  not  ratified  the  Conventions  as 
to  (1)  exchange  of  letters  and  packets  with  value  declared, 
(2)  postal  money  orders,  (3)  postal  recognition  regarding  the 
rate  for  journals  and  periodicals  from  abroad. 

Article  43  of  the  Constitution  declares — 

"  Communications  entrusted  to  the  Department  of  Tele- 
graphs and  Posts  are  inviolable.  Letters  and  private  papers 
cannot  be  intercepted  nor  entered  on  a  register  except  by 
authority,  acting  under  the  order  of  a  competent  official, 
in  cases,  and  under  formalities,  established  by  law,  and  with 
the  sole  object  of  seeking  judicial  evidence.  The  circulations 
of  printed  matter  by  means  of  the  post  may  be  controlled, 
but  not  prohibited  in  time  of  peace." 

Coin,  jewellery,  paper  money  and  documents  of  public 
import  may  not  be  sent  in  unregistered  letters.  If  the  postal 
authorities  have  reason  to  suppose  that  a  closed  letter  contains 

189 


190  COLOMBIA 

prohibited  articles,  they  may  write  thereon  the  words 
"  Atencion,  poste  restante,"  in  which  case  the  person  to  whom 
it  is  addressed  may  be  directed  to  open  the  packet  in  the 
presence  of  officials,  who,  however,  only  satisfy  themselves 
as  to  the  presence  or  not  of  such  prohibited  articles,  and  in 
the  event  of  these  being  found,  they  have  the  power  to  demand 
double  the  duty  chargeable. 

The  fees  payable  on  "  Valores  Declarados  "  are  3  per  cent, 
on  notes  and  gold,  and  2  per  cent.,  plus  4  centimes  per  5 
grammes  on  silver. 

Senders  of  franked  letters  or  parcels,  desiring  that  these 
should  be  delivered  only  into  the  hands  of  the  addressee  or  a 
formally  authorised  person,  may  ensure  this  by  marking  the 
front  of  the  envelope  clearly  with  the  words  "  Poste  Restante." 
It  naturally  follows  that  persons  having  their  letters  addressed 
"  Poste  Restante "  must  provide  satisfactory  evidence  of 
identity. 

There  are  over  500  post  offices  in  the  Republic. 

Tariffs 
Inland  Mails 

Ordinary  Letters. — 2  centavos  (gold)  for  every  15  grammes, 
or  fraction  of  15  grammes.  So  a  letter  weighing  less  than 
15  grammes  pays  2  centavos  ;  one  weighing  48  grammes 
pays  8  centavos. 

Post  Cards. — 1  centavo  single  ;   2  centavos  reply. 

Printed  Matter. — \  centavo  per  package  up  to  50  grammes, 
and  a  |  centavo  more  for  any  fraction  of  this  weight.  News- 
papers not  older  than  six  months,  free. 

Business  Papers. — 2  centavos  up  to  100  grammes,  and 
1  centavo  more  for  every  100  grammes  or  fraction  thereof. 

Registration  Fee. — 10  centavos,  plus  the  ordinary  postal  fee. 

Urban  Service. — Letters  posted  and  to  be  delivered  within 
an  urban  district,  \  centavo  per  15  grammes. 

Letters  marked  "  Urgente  "  for  special  delivery,  4  centavos. 

Sample  Post. — 1  centavo  for  every  100  grammes,  or  fraction 
of  100  grammes. 

Foreign  Mails 

Letters. — 5  centavos  for  every  15  grammes,  or  for  every 
amount  exceeding  the  multiples  of  15. 


APPENDIX  D  191 

Post  Cards. — 2  centavo,  single     4  centavos,  double. 

Newspapers. — 2  centavos  for  every  50  grammes  or  fraction 
thereof. 

Samples. — 2  centavos  for  the  first  100  grammes,  and  above 
that  weight,  1  centavo  for  every  50  grammes. 

Telegraphs 

Telegraphs  are  a  State  monopoly.  Private  persons  may 
not  establish  telegraphs  without  Government  permission. 

There  are  524  telegraph  offices  and  11,248  miles  of  telegraph 
lines  within  the  Republic. 

There  is  a  branch  cable  between  Panama  and  Buenaventura. 

The  charge  for  internal  messages  are  2  centavos  gold  per 
word  for  the  first  ten  words,  and  3  centavos  gold  for  every 
subsequent  word. 

Telephones 

In  Bogota  the  telephone  service  is  leased  by  the  Govern- 
ment to  an  English  company,  who  besides  service  to  houses 
have  a  number  of  public  call  offices  in  the  city.  The  charge  is 
5  centavos  per  call. 

There  are  telephone  services  in  Barranquilla,  Cartagena, 
Medellin  and  other  towns. 


APPENDIX  E 
DIPLOMATIC  AND  CONSULAR  SERVICES 

Colombian    Representatives  in  the   United  States  of  America 

Envoy      Extraordinary       and      Minister      Plen.  :       Julio 
Betancourt.     First  Sec.  of  Legation  :    Roberto  Mac  Douall. 

Also  Consular  officials  at  Baltimore,  Boston,  Mobile,  New 
York,  New  Orleans,  Norfolk,  Porto  Rico,  Philadelphia,  St. 
Louis,  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles. 

United  States  Representatives  in  Colombia 

Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plen.  :  James  T.  DuBois, 
Bogota.     Sec.  of  Legation  :  L.  Harrison. 

Also  Consular  officials  at  Barranquilla  (Isaac  A.  Manning), 
Bogota,  Cartagena,  Cali,  Medellin,  Santa  Marta. 

Colombian  Representatives  in  the  United  Kingdom 

Minister  and  Envoy  :  Pedro  Maria  Carrefio.  Secretary  of 
Legation  :  Saturnino  Restrepo,  25  Avenue  Road,  London, 
N.W. 

Consul-General  and  Fiscal  Agent  in  London  :  Francisco 
Restrepo  Plata,  Sicilian  Avenue,  W.C. 

Also  Consular  officials  at  Liverpool,  Southampton,  Cardiff, 
Glasgow,  Dundee,  Birmingham,  Nottingham. 

British  Representatives  in  Colombia 

Envoy  Extr.,  Minister  Plen.  and  Consul-General :  Percy 
C.  Wyndham,  Bogota.     Vice-Consul :  D.  Young. 

Also  consular  officers  at  Barranquilla,  Cartagena,  Honda, 
Medellin,  Santa  Marta,  Buenaventura  and  Tumaco. 


192 


APPENDIX   F 

DENOUNCEMENT    AND     ALLOTMENT     OF     PUBLIC 

LANDS. 

Law  No.  56,  April  29, 1905,  Concerning  the  Adjudication 
of  Public  Lands. 

The  National  Constituent  and  Legislative  Assembly  of 
Colombia  decrees  : 

Article  1.  Every  person  occupying  Government  lands, 
who  builds  a  residence  thereon  and  cultivates  said  lands, 
acquires  the  right  of  ownership  to  the  cultivated  portion 
thereof  and  to  additional  land  equal  in  extent  to  the  cultivated 
portion. 

Art.  2.  Any  person  who,  as  a  colonist  or  agriculturist, 
thinks  he  has  any  right  of  ownership  to  the  cultivated  land, 
either  because  of  having  artificial  pasturage,  coffee  plantations, 
cacao  plantations,  wheat  fields,  cornfields,  potatoes,  etc., 
should  apply  to  the  respective  survey  and  land  office,  filing 
a  report  signed  by  three  witnesses,  giving  the  name  by  which 
said  lands  or  parts  thereof  are  known,  the  province,  muni- 
cipality, township  wherein  the  adjoining  lands  are  situated, 
and  other  particulars,  giving  a  clear  idea  of  the  same.  The 
depositions  shall  be  made  in  the  presence  of  the  municipal 
judge  in  whose  jurisdiction  the  lands  are  situated,  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  municipal  attorney,  who  shall  be  summoned 
for  that  purpose,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  latter  said  deposition 
shall  be  made  in  the  presence  of  the  proper  mayor. 

In  this  statement  the  witnesses  should  declare  the  fact 
as  known  to  them  that  the  applicant  has  established  his 
residence  and  has  cultivated  lands,  stating  also  the  character 
of  the  crops.  The  statement  made  by  the  witnesses,  together 
with  the  petition  making  the  denouncement,  shall  oe  addressed 
to  the  municipal  board  of  the  proper  district  in  whose  juris- 
diction the  denounced  lands  are  situated.  On  the  receipt 
of  said  petition  the  survey  of  the  land  by  an  expert  surveyor 
shall  be  ordered,  and  the  latter,  together  with  the  denouncing 
party,  shall  be  responsible  for  the  accuracy  of  the  survey. 

193 


194  COLOMBIA 

The  surveyor  shall  fix  the  boundaries  by  natural  limits  or  by 
magnetic  directions  and  exact  distances,  and  shall  confine 
himself  to  the  scientific  prescriptions,  and  upon  drawing  the 
plans  he  shall  be  guided  by  established  rules.  After  the 
survey  has  been  made,  and  it  has  been  proved  that  the  colonists 
are  such  that  they  have  cultivated  fields,  the  municipal 
board  shall  decree  the  provisional  adjudication  and  shall 
send  the  proceedings  to  the  Department  of  Public  Works 
for  final  adjudication,  which  shall  be  granted  if  there  is  no 
legal  reason  to  prevent  the  same.  The  formal  delivery  shall 
be  made  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  now  in  force 
relating  to  public  lands  and  in  such  way  as  not  to  injure 
the  rights  of  third  parties. 

Art.  3.  The  title  of  ownership  of  the  adjudication  of 
public  lands  shall  be  issued  by  the  Department  of  Public 
Works,  in  a  record  book^duly  paged,  in  which  there  shall  be 
entered  the  extent  and  situation  of  the  adjudicated  land  and 
the  name,  residence,  and  nationality  of  the  person  acquiring 
it.  Said  title  should  be  recorded  in  the  registration  office 
of  the  circuit  where  the  said  lands  are  located. 

Art.  4.  The  procedure  for  the  adjudication,  delivery,  and 
registration  of  public  lands  by  the  sale  thereof  shall  be  made 
in  the  same  manner  as  that  employed  in  the  case  of  colonists 
and  agriculturists,  and  the  witnesses  shall  declare  that  the 
lands  are  not  for  any  public  use,  that  they  are  public  lands, 
and  are  situated  at  a  distance  exceeding  1  myriameter  from 
existing  railways  or  those  in  construction,  which  statement 
shall,  in  addition,  be  verified  at  the  Department  of  Public 
Works. 

Art.  5.  In  order  to  verify  at  any  time  the  accuracy  of  the 
adjudicated  lands  by  concessions  made  to  companies  or  by 
sales  to  private  persons,  the  longitude  and  latitude  shall  be 
determined  in  the  proper  plans  with  reference  to  the  meridian 
which  passes  through  the  Astronomical  Observatory  at  Bogotai 

Art.  6.  In  drawing  all  plans  of  public  lands,  whether 
by  sale  or  adjudication,  the  surveyor  shall  only  estimate  in 
areas  whole  numbers  of  hectares  on  the  scale  of  one-thousandth 
or  on  a  smaller  one. 

Art.  7.  Public  lands  which  have  not  been  cultivated  since 
the  promulgation  of  Law  No.  48  of  1882  shall  again  become 


APPENDIX  F  195 

ipso  facto  the  property  of  the  nation,  and  after  it  is  proved  that 
they  are  not  cultivated  they  may  be  denounced.  Likewise, 
in  future,  one-half  at  least  of  the  extent  of  all  public  lands 
adjudicated  to  colonists,  companies,  or  agriculturists  shall  be 
cultivated,  since  without  such  requisite  the  right  of  the 
person  to  whom  they  have  been  adjudicated  shall  expire 
within  the  term  fixed  in  the  title  of  said  adjudication. 

Art.  8.  Agriculturists  or  colonists  may  freely  sell  the  planta- 
tions, buildings,  and  seed  plots  established  on  public  lands, 
the  buyer  thus  acquiring  the  right  of  ownership  of  the  seller 
over  the  cultivated  lands. 

Art.  9.  The  title  of  ownership  of  adjudicated  public  lands 
is  the  certificate  issued  by  the  Minister  of  Public  Works  stating 
the  final  adjudication,  and  which  is  also  recorded  in  the  registry 
office  to  which  the  respective  municipality  in  which  the  lands 
are  situated  belongs. 

Art.  10.  The  possession  of  public  lands  is  the  holding  of 
the  same  by  an  individual  with  the  intention  of  becoming 
owner  thereof,  either  for  himself  or  in  representation  of  third 
parties,  by  virtue  of  acts  of  ownership,  such  as  forming  seed 
plots,  constructing  buildings,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  land 
in  general. 

Art.  11.  No  adjudication  of  public  lands  shall  exceed 
1,000  hectares,  the  Nation  reserving  to  itself  alternate  areas 
equivalent  to  those  adjudicated. 

Art.  12.  The  survey  and  other  expenses  incidental  to 
all  adjudications  shall  be  for  account  of  the  respective 
concessionaires  and  grantees. 

Art.  13.  All  adjudications  of  public  lands  now  in  force 
by  any  title  whatever  and  whose  lands  have  not  been  cultivated 
shall  pay  a  tax  equal  to  that  which  obtains  on  rural  lands, 
and  the  municipal  boards  of  the  respective  districts  in  which 
the  said  public  lands  are  situated  are  authorized  to  collect 
said  tax,  irrespective  of  the  provisions  of  Article  7  concerning 
public  lands  adjudicated  subsequent  to  the  promulgation  of 
Law  48  of  1882. 

Art.  14.  Colonists  or  agriculturists  desiring  to  obtain 
adjacent  lands  in  adjudication  may  do  so  by  purchase, 
in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  present  law. 

Art.  15.     On    and     after    the    date    of   the    passage   of 


196  COLOMBIA 

the  present  law  the  issue  of  territorial  bonds  is  absolutely 
prohibited. 

Art.  16.  The  titles  or  bonds  of  public  lands,  in  circulation, 
must  be  recorded  in  the  Department  of  Public  Works  within 
the  term  of  one  year  from  the  promulgation  of  this  law.  In 
order  to  render  it  easier  for  the  holders  to  make  this  registra- 
tion, it  shall  be  sufficient  for  them  to  exhibit  their  bonds  to  the 
Municipal  Treasurer  of  the  respective  district  in  which  they 
reside,  and  said  official  shall  forward  a  statement  to  the 
aforesaid  department  containing  the  following  : 

(1)  The  name,  domicile,  and  nationality  of  the  holder. 

(2)  The  kind  of  bond,  stating  the  date  of  issuance  and  its 
origin. 

(3)  The  amount  of  the  bond. 

Foreign  holders  of  territorial  bonds  shall  show  their  bonds 
to  the  respective  consul,  and  the  latter  to  said  department. 

Art.  17.  The  final  titles  of  adjudication  of  public  lands 
made  either  in  exchange  for  titles  or  to  agriculturists  or  colon- 
ists must  be  recorded  or  registered  immediately  at  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Works  in  order  that  they  may  be  legally  valid 
afterwards.  This  registration  must  be  made  within  two  years 
from  the  date  of  the  promulgation  of  this  law. 

In  order  to  avoid  difficulties  in  making  this  registration 
the  same  shall  be  made  before  the  municipal  treasurers  of  the 
respective  districts  where  the  adjudicated  lands  are  situated. 

Art.  18.  The  municipalities  shall  enjoy  the  right  of  usufruct 
of  the  public  lands  of  their  respective  jurisdiction,  with  the 
previous  consent  of  the  National  Government,  but  this  shall 
not  prevent  their  alienation  and  adjudication,  which,  having 
been  made,  the  right  of  usufruct  shall  cease. 

Art.  19.  The  ownership  of  all  public  lands  is  in  the  Nation, 
because  of  having  recovered  the  absolute  ownership  over 
those  which  belonged  to  the  former  States,  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  Section  2,  Article  202,  of  the  National 
Constitution. 

Art.  20.  The  titles  of  concession  of  public  lands  issued  in 
favour  of  said  former  States  are  hereby  declared  void,  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  the  19th  of  May,  1865,  and  Article 
870  of  the  Fiscal  Code  with  the  exception  of  those  which  were 
alienated  before  the  issuance  of  the  Constitution  of  1886. 


APPENDIX  F  197 

Art.  21.  The  adjudications  of  public  lands  in  exchange  for 
titles  already  delivered  in  favour  of  companies  or  contractors  of 
certain  public  works,  as  a  subsidy  to  the  latter,  shall  not  be 
considered  as  final  except  in  so  far  as  the  Government  shall 
declare  that  the  contractors  or  concessionaires  have  complied 
with  the  obligations  by  virtue  of  which  the  concession  had  been 
made. 

Art.  22.  The  Department  of  Public  Works  shall  make 
a  statement  of  said  adjudications,  which  shall  be  published 
in  the  Diario  Oficial. 

Art.  23.  In  future  no  adjudications  shall  be  made  in 
exchange  of  titles  of  the  origin  referred  to  in  Article  21  unless 
they  have  been  duly  recorded. 

Art.  24.  The  free  exploitation  of  National  Forests  is  hereby 
prohibited.  The  Executive  Power  is  authorized  to  make 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  carrying  out  of  such  exploitation. 

Art.  25.  The  Government  is  hereby  authorized  to  create 
agricultural  boards  or  committees,  the  powers  of  which 
shall  be  determined  by  Executive  decrees. 

Art.  26.  All  bonds  paid  shall  be  perforated,  and  in  addition 
shall  be  made  void  by  a  communication  signed  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Department  of  Public  Works.  The  omission  of 
these  requisites  renders  the  chief  of  the  respective  division 
responsible  for  the  value  represented  by  the  bond  and  subjects 
him  to  a  criminal  action  for  an  attempt  of  a  breach  of  trust. 

Art.  27.  Lands  adjudicated  to  colonists  and  which  have 
not  been  cultivated  owing  to  the  last  war  will  not  be  subject 
to  the  provisions  of  Articles  7  and  13  of  this  law. 

Given  at  Bogota  on  the  29th  of  April,  1905. 

The    President    (of    the    National    Constituent  and 
Legislative  Assembly), 

Enrique  Restrepo  Garcia. 
The  Secretary, 

Daniel  Rubio  Parjs. 

Executive  Power,  Bogota,  April  29,  1095. 
Let  it  be  published  and  duly  enforced. 
[l.s.]  R.  Reyes. 

The  Secretary  of  Public  Works, 

Modesto  Garces 
14— (2948) 


198  COLOMBIA 

Decree  No.  1113  of  September  19,  1905,  Relating  to  Law 

56  of  the  present  year,  concerning  adjudications  of 

Public  Lands. 

The  President  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  in  the  exercise 
of  his  legal  powers,  and 

Whereas,  by  virtue  of  Law  No.  56  of  the  current  year  some 
of  the  provisions  of  the  Fiscal  Code,  of  the  subsequent  laws, 
and  of  the  executive  decrees  relating  to  the  adjudication,  sale, 
and  lease  of  public  lands  have  been  modified,  and,  consequently 
the  development  of  the  former  and  the  modification  and 
regulation  of  the  latter,  decrees  : 

Art.  1.  The  Nation  transfers  the  ownership  of  public 
lands  as  follows :  By  adjudication  to  agriculturists ;  by 
assignment  to  companies  for  the  development  of  works  of 
public  utility  :  to  new  settlements  and  to  the  settlers  of 
those  already  established,  in  exchange  for  bonds  or  titles  of 
concession,  and  to  private  parties  by  purchase  for  money. 

Art.  2.  The  Nation  recognises  in  favour  of  agriculturists 
the  right  of  ownership  referred  to  in  Article  1  of  Law  No.  56 
of  the  present  year,  said  agriculturists  being  obliged,  how- 
ever, to  obtain  the  traditional  legal  title  by  virtue  of  the  final 
adjudication  and  the  actual  delivery  decreed  after  the  proper 
proceedings. 

Art.  3.  Plantations,  by  virtue  of  which  the  right  to  the 
acknowledgment  of  ownership  by  the  Government  is  acquired, 
must  have  been  established  previous  to  the  application  for 
adjudication,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  laws 
and  decrees  concerning  the  matter. 

Paragraph.  The  plantations  established  subsequent  to  the 
adjudications  for  any  other  reason,  when  the  lands  again 
become  the  property  of  the  Nation,  entitle  the  persons  who 
have  established  them  only  to  an  indemnization  in  conformity 
with  the  civil  laws  relating  to  the  interpretation  and  rescission 
of  contracts. 

Art.  4.  When,  contiguous  to  cultivated  public  lands,  there 
are  no  uncultivated  lands  of  sufficient  area  to  complete  the 
equivalent  to  which  the  agriculturists  are  entitled  to,  only 
the  existing  lands  shall  be  adjudicated,  and  in  case  there  are 
several  adjacent  colonists,  said  uncultivated  lands  shall  be 


APPENDIX  F  199 

distributed  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  their  cultivated 
lands  without  reserving  any  portions  thereof  for  the  Nation. 

Art.  5.  If  the  uncultivated  lands  which,  in  accordance  with 
Article  11  of  Law  56  already  quoted,  should  be  reserved 
for  the  Nation  adjacent  to  those  adjudicated  to  the  agricul- 
turists are  not  sufficient  to  complete  an  area  equivalent  to  that 
adjudicated,  only  the  excess  shall  be  reserved  to  the  Nation. 

Art.  6.  The  grantees  and  the  present  owners  or  holders 
of  any  title  of  public  lands  must  grant  in  favour  of  the  new 
colonists  or  denouncers  the  right  of  way  they  may  seek 
through  such  lands,  provided  the  interested  parties  should 
justify  or  prove  such  need  before  the  municipal  board. 

Art.  7.  The  municipal  boards  shall  cause  to  be  recorded 
in  the  registry  of  real  property  of  the  respective  district 
the  public  lands  which  have  not  been  cultivated,  the  adjudica- 
tions of  which  are  previous  or  subsequent  to  the  time  when 
Law  48  of  1882  became  effective  ;  shall  cause  said  lands  to 
be  appraised,  and  shall  impose  on  them  the  proper  tax  ;  this 
to  be  done  in  accordance  with  Article  13  of  Law  56  of  1905. 

Art.  8.  Whenever  the  municipal  board  has  knowledge  that 
there  are,  within  its  municipal  territory,  uncultivated  public 
lands  which  have  been  adjudicated  after  Law  48  of  1882 
became  operative,  it  shall  cause  an  ocular  inspection  to  be 
made,  and  when  such  fact  is  verified  the  board  shall 
communicate  it  to  the  Department  of  Public  Works. 

Art.  9.  The  provisions  of  Article  7  of  Law  56  already 
cited  and  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  article  are  applicable 
to  public  lands  which  have  been  adjudicated  after  the  passage 
of  the  aforesaid  Law  48,  should  the  cultivated  portion  not 
bear  the  proportion  prescribed  in  Article  12  of  the  Decree  No. 
832  of  1884. 

Art.  10.  By  virtue  of  the  right  of  usufruct,  enjoyed  by  the 
municipalities  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  public  lands 
not  yet  adjudicated,  the  respective  municipalities  may 
administer  them  by  leasing  them  or  permitting  private 
parties  to  use  them,  but  of  an  area  not  exceeding  1,000 
hectares  nor  for  a  period  of  time  greater  than  five  years. 

Art.  11.  From  the  date  on  which  this  decree  becomes 
operative,  all  the  licences  and  authorizations  gratuitously 
conferred  by  the  authorities  for  the  use  of  public  lands  that 


200  COLOMBIA 

have  not  been  adjudicated  shall  be  void.  Consequently, 
the  municipalities  shall  recover  the  lands  referred  to  in  this 
Article. 

Art.  12.  In  the  ten  years  prescribed  by  Article  7  of  Law  48 
of  1882  for  establishing  in  the  adjudicated  lands  some  agricul- 
tural or  cattle  industry,  the  time  of  the  disturbance  of  the 
public  peace  during  the  last  war  shall  not  be  counted. 

Art.  13.  Persons  to  whom  public  lands  have  been  adjudi- 
cated after  Law  29  of  April  19,  1873,  became  operative,  where 
there  have  already  been  discovered  coal  mines  or  deposits, 
shall  communicate  this  fact  to  the  Department  of  Public 
Works  within  six  months  counting  from  the  publication  of  this 
decree,  with  the  understanding  that  if  they  fail  to  comply 
with  this  requisite  they  shall  not  have  the  right  of  priority  in 
the  contracts  for  the  exploitation  of  said  mines  or  deposits 
as  the  Government  should  make. 

Art.  14.  The  prohibition  contained  in  Article  11  of  Law 
56  of  1905,  as  a  special  and  subsequent  provision,  prevails 
over  all  contrary  provisions. 

Procedure 

Art.  15.  In  the  sworn  statements  of  witnesses  in  which 
the  facts  referred  to  in  Articles  2  and  4  of  Law  56,  to  which 
this  decree  refers,  are  proved,  the  witnesses  shall  state  the 
reason  of  their  allegations,  in  the  presence  of  the  municipal 
attorney. 

Art.  16.  The  respective  municipal  solicitors  shall  give  their 
opinion  in  all  cases,  in  which  the  municipal  councils  shall 
present  a  resolution  in  the  proceedings  relating  to  the 
adjudication  of  public  lands. 

Art.  17.  The  denouncer  of  public  lands  shall  be  jointly 
liable  with  the  surveyor  with  regard  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
survey  and  other  requisites  required  by  the  laws  and  the 
decrees  in  force  concerning  the  making  of  the  plans,  said 
responsibility  consisting  of  the  obligation  to  pay  to  the  nation 
the  value  of  the  excess  land  or  the  damages  caused  by  the 
mistake,  as  well  as  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  correction 
of  the  same. 

Paragraph.  This  provision  does  not  divest  the  denouncer 
of  the  rights  granted  him  to  the  excess  land  by  Article  940 
of  the  Fiscal  Code. 


APPENDIX  F  201 

Art.  18.  The  surveyor  shall  mark  in  the  plan,  and  it  shall 
also  be  stated  in  the  certificate  of  adjudication,  the  place 
through  which  the  necessary  road  leading  to  the  adjacent 
lands  shall  be  established,  whether  the  latter  are  private 
or  public  lands,  and  which  lack  direct  communication  with 
public  highways,  taking  into  consideration  above  all  the 
greatest  convenience  and  the  shortest  distance. 

Art.  19.  All  kinds  of  adjudications,  whether  they  be  greater 
or  less  than  100  hectares,  require,  in  order  to  be  granted,  the 
drawing  of  the  plan  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
law  in  force. 

Art.  20.  The  oppositions  made  to  the  applications  for 
adjudication  by  occupants  of  public  lands  without  final 
title  shall  be  decided  by  the  respective  municipal  council 
simultaneously  with  the  issuance  of  the  decision  by  virtue 
of  which  they  are  provisionally  adjudicated.  The  application 
made  by  persons  who  show  titles  to  property  granted  before 
the  denouncement  shall  be  decided  upon  by  the  judicial  power, 
to  whom  shall  be  sent  the  proceedings  and  to  whom  the 
interested  parties  shall  apply. 

Art.  21.  The  evidence  which  the  denouncers  shall  produce, 
according  to  the  provision  of  Article  7  of  Law  56  of  the  present 
year,  relating  to  the  failure  to  cultivate  the  public  lands 
adjudicated  after  Law  48  of  1882,  shall  consist  of  the  actual 
personal  inspection  by  the  mayor,  accompanied  by  the  munici- 
pal attorney  and  a  neighbour,  who  shall  be  a  landowner  in 
good  standing,  at  the  expense  of  the  interested  party. 

Art.  22.  The  denouncers  of  public  lands,  in  exchange  for 
territorial  bonds  or  titles  of  the  origin  referred  to  in  Article 
21  of  Law  56,  and  of  those  lands  which  for  any  reason  have 
not  been  registered  in  accordance  with  said  law  in  the 
Department  of  Public  Works,  and  whose  applications  are 
being  acted  upon,  may  exchange  the  same  for  others  of 
different  origin  already  registered,  before  any  decision  is 
reached  concerning  the  final  adjudication. 

Art.  23.  The  certificate  which  constitutes  the  title  of 
ownership,  referred  to  in  Article  9  of  Law  56  of  the  current 
year,  shall  be  issued  by  the  Department  of  Public  Works 
as  soon  as  the  latter  receives  the  proceedings  from  the  respec- 
tive municipality,  together  with  all  the  documents  relating 
to  the  ownership  to  be  finally  filed. 


202  COLOMBIA 

Art.  24.  From  the  decisions  reached  by  the  municipal 
councils,  in  the  proceedings  concerning  the  adjudication  of 
public  lands,  there  shall  be  no  appeal  except  from  those 
regarding  temporary  adjudications,  of  which  the  Department 
of  Public  Works  shall  have  cognizance. 

Paragraph.  In  the  administrative  proceedings  relating 
to  adjudication  of  public  lands,  applications  for  repeal  shall 
only  be  allowed  once. 

Art.  25.  The  decisions  of  the  officials  referred  to  in  Article 
5  of  Law  61  of  1874  may  be  brought  on  appeal  before  the 
respective  provincial  alcalde  or  prefect. 

Art.  26.  When  the  denounced  public  lands  are  situated  in 
two  or  more  municipalities  the  interested  party  may  apply 
for  the  adjudication  of  the  same  to  any  of  the  municipal 
councils  they  may  select. 

Art.  27.  The  notifications  of  the  administrative  decisions 
in  matters  concerning  public  lands  shall  be  personally  made 
to  the  interested  party  or  parties  whenever  they  apply  to 
receive  the  same,  or  through  a  decree  in  case  they  should  not 
so  apply,  which  dercee  shall  be  posted  twenty-four  working 
hours  on  the  day  following  the  one  on  which  said  notifications 
have  been  issued. 

Art.  28.  After  a  period  of  five  days  shall  have  elapsed  from 
the  date  of  the  notification  the  same  shall  be  considered 
finally  settled. 

Adjudications  by  Purchase 

Art.  29.  The  purchase  of  public  lands  referred  to  in  Article 
4  of  the  aforesaid  Law  56  shall  be  made  either  in  exchange 
for  titles  of  concession  already  issued  or  by  purchase  in  national 
money. 

Art.  30.  In  denouncing  public  lands  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  them  by  purchase,  the  denouncer  shall  state  in  his 
application  the  amount  he  offers  to  pay  for  them,  which  shall 
not  be  less  than  50  cents  gold  per  hectare  for  lands  suitable 
only  for  grazing  stock,  and  $1  gold  for  cultivated  lands,  and 
shall  deposit  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  price  as  a  guarantee  of 
the  fulfilment  of  his  pledge. 

Art.  31.  Once  the  denouncement  has  been  accepted 
by  the  Municipal  Council,  the  latter  shall  direct  that  the  same 
be  made  known  by  means  of  decrees,  which  shall  not  be  less 


APPENDIX  F  203 

than  three  in  number,  and  which  shall  be  posted  in  the  most 
public  places  of  the  municipality,  stating  therein  the  boundaries 
of  the  land  and  the  price  offered,  in  order  that,  during  said 
term,  those  desirous  of  making  better  bids  may  do  so. 

Art.  32.  After  thirty  days  shall  have  elapsed  without 
anyone  having  made  a  better  bid,  and  the  decrees  having 
been  added  to  the  proceedings  with  the  respective  notice 
of  having  been  posted  and  taken  down,  the  procedure  shall 
go  on  without  further  requisite. 

Art.  33.  If  while  the  said  decrees  are  posted  there  should 
appear  persons  who  offer  to  increase  the  price  of  the  first 
bid,  and  the  denouncer  should  agree  to  make  his  bid  equal 
to  the  highest  made,  the  proceedings  shall  be  continued  in 
favour  of  the  latter  bidder. 

Art.  34.  If  the  denouncer  should  not  desire  to  make  his 
bid  equal  to  the  one  already  made,  and  the  highest  bidder 
should  deposit  in  the  municipal  treasury  10  per  cent,  of  the 
bid  made,  the  proceedings  in  favour  of  the  latter  shall  be 
continued,  adding  to  the  said  proceedings  the  receipt  of  the 
deposit. 

Art.  35.  Before  reaching  a  decision  concerning  the  final 
adjudication  in  favour  of  the  purchaser,  the  latter  shall  show 
the  receipt  of  having  deposited  in  the  National  Treasury  the 
sum  offered  as  value  of  the  lands  which  shall  be  adjudicated 
to  him. 

Sales  of  more  than  1,000  hectares 

Art.  36.  Public  lands  exceeding  1,000  hectares  in  area 
may  be  sold  by  the  Government,  provided  the  bids  for  their 
acquisition  are  made  directly  to  the  Department  of  Public 
Works,  accompanied  by  the  vouchers  required  for  the  adjudi- 
cation of  public  lands  in  accordance  with  Law  56  of  the  present 
year,  stating  the  sum  offered  for  the  same. 

Art.  37.  The  application,  made  in  accordance  with  the 
foregoing  article,  shall  serve  as  a  basis  for  making  the  bids, 
and  shall  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  rules  established 
by  the  Fiscal  Code  concerning  the  sale  of  Government 
property. 

Adjudications  for  the  Establishing  of  New  Towns,  and 
made  to  New  Settlers 
Art.  38.     The  adjudication  of  public  lands  intended  for  the 


204  COLOMBIA 

establishment  of  new  towns  and  to  new  settlers  shall  be  made 
after  the  National  Government  has  made  the  grant  of  the  land 
necessary  to  the  respective  municipalities,  in  conformity 
with  the  following  articles  : 

Art.  39.  The  grant  shall  be  applied  for  the  respective 
municipal  councils,  stating  the  number  of  hectares  required 
for  the  establishment  of  a  new  town,  or  for  the  new  settlers, 
with  proofs  as  to  the  quality  of  the  public  lands  in  question. 

Art.  40.  In  view  of  the  application  and  of  the  proofs 
attached  thereto  the  National  Government  shall  decide 
whether  the  grants  of  public  lands  for  the  purpose  indicated 
shall  be  made  or  not. 

Art.  41.  After  the  grant  has  been  made,  the  respective 
municipal  councils  shall  proceed  to  make  the  distribution 
and  adjudication  to  the  settlers,  using  for  that  purpose  the 
provisions  of  Law  14  of  1870  and  those  of  Decree  No.  520  of 
1878  with  regard  to  the  duties  of  the  surveyor  and  of  the 
agrarian  committees. 

Art.  42.  It  is  understood  that  the  provisions  of  the  fore- 
going articles  shall  not  impair  the  rights  which  settlers  already 
established  on  said  lands  have  to  solicit  said  adjudications. 

Art.  43.  Public  lands  containing  heron  roosts  or  sleeping 
places  for  herons  shall  not  in  future  be  adjudicated,  being  held 
to  be  leased  to  private  parties  who  may  so  desire  to  lease  them. 

Registration  and  Annulment  of  Titles 

Art.  48.  The  municipal  treasurer,  to  whom  the  bonds 
or  titles  of  final  adjudication  are  presented  for  registration, 
shall  write  a  note  thereon,  under  his  signature,  stating  therein 
the  number  and  date  of  the  entry  of  the  book  wherein  the 
registration  was  made  in  the  Department  of  Public  Works, 
as  soon  as  he  receives  the  data  which  should  be  sent  him  from 
said  Department,  together  with  the  proper  voucher  that  the 
said  registration  has  been  made,  holding  the  titles  while  this 
is  being  done. 

Art.  49.  The  municipal  treasurers  shall  forward  to  the 
Department  of  Public  Works  the  statements  of  the  bonds 
or  titles  of  grants  and  the  titles  of  adjudication  presented 
to  them  for  registration,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions 
of  Articles  16  and  17  of  the  aforesaid  Law  56,  and  shall  leave 


APPENDIX  F  205 

a  copy  of  said  statement  in  a  book  which  shall  be  kept 
for  this  purpose. 

Art.  50.  The  provisions  of  the  articles  above  quoted  do 
not  prevent  the  holders  of  bonds  or  titles  of  adjudication  from 
presenting  them  directly  to  the  Department  of  Public  Works 
in  order  that  they  may  be  registered  in  that  Department. 

Art.  51.  The  Department  of  Public  Works  shall,  for  the 
purpose  of  registering  the  titles  or  bonds  of  grants  of  public 
lands  in  the  order  of  dates,  series,  and  origin,  retain  them  the 
time  necessary  to  verify  the  greater  number  of  one  kind,  with 
the  details  relating  thereto,  and  record  them  in  one  single 
proceeding,  issuing  a  provisional  receipt  to  the  parties 
presenting  them. 

Art.  52.  The  inscription  in  the  registration  book  shall  be 
made  in  an  inverted  order  to  that  of  the  respective  date  of  the 
issue  of  the  bonds  or  titles  of  grants. 

Art.  53.  If,  on  making  the  registration  in  the  Department 
of  Public  Works  of  the  bonds  or  titles  of  grant  or  adjudication 
presented  for  that  purpose,  it  should  be  found  that  they  belong 
to  the  kind  referred  to  in  Article  21  of  Law  56,  before  cited, 
the  registration  shall  not  be  made  until  it  shall  be  proved  by 
the  interested  parties  or  until  official  proof  is  furnished  that 
the  contractors  or  grantees  have  complied  with  the  obligations 
by  virtue  of  which  the  title  was  issued  in  their  favour  or  the 
adjudication  was  made  to  them. 

Art.  54.  No  title  or  voucher  of  adjudication  of  public  lands 
issued  after  Law  48  of  1882  became  effective,  and  which  has 
been  issued  for  a  period  greater  than  ten  years,  shall  be 
registered  in  the  Department  of  Public  Works  until  the  inter- 
ested party  proves  that  the  adjudicated  land  has  been  cul- 
tivated to  the  extent  prescribed  by  Article  12  of  Decree  No. 
832  of  1884. 

Art.  55.  The  titles  or  bonds  of  concession  of  public  lands 
which,  at  the  time  of  registration  in  the  Department  of  Public 
Works,  should  prove  to  be  counterfeit  or  to  have  been  taken 
from  proceedings  already  concluded  shall  be  perforated  and 
annulled,  the  owner  thereof  reserving  to  himself  the  right  to 
proceed  against  the  person  who  may  have  sold  or  indorsed  them. 

Art.  56.  The  titles  or  bonds  of  concession  of  public  lands 
which,  notwithstanding  that  they  have  been  registered,  are 


206  COLOMBIA 

counterfeit  or  have  been  stolen,  shall  be  declared  void  by  the 
Department  of  Public  Works  and  a  description  of  them  shall 
be  published  in  the  Diario  Ofwial  (Official  Gazette). 

Art.  57.  The  titles  or  bonds  of  grants  of  public  lands  which 
after  the  term  fixed  by  Article  16  of  the  said  Law  56  shall  have 
expired  have  not  been  registered  in  the  Department  of  Public 
Works  are  declared  void,  and  shall  not  therefore  have  any 
value  whatever  thereafter. 

Art.  58.  The  bonds  or  titles  of  grants  of  public  lands  which 
are  the  property  of  private  persons  deposited  for  any  person 
in  the  Department  of  Public  Works  shall  be  registered  after 
being  duly  examined  and  verified  for  the  purpose  of  proving 
their  authenticity. 

Paragraph.  In  case  it  should  appear  that  said  bonds  or 
titles  are  counterfeited  or  stolen  the  proper  officials  shall 
proceed  to  void  and  perforate  the  same,  the  receipt  issued  for 
them  being  thereby  cancelled  and  annulled. 

Art.  59.  If  a  deposit  has  been  made  to  guarantee  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  obligations  contracted  in  favour  of  the  nation 
by  virtue  of  contracts  entered  into  with  the  Government,  and 
it  should  appear  that  the  titles  or  bonds  of  the  grant  are 
counterfeited  or  stolen,  after  the  annulment  of  the  same, 
a  new  guarantee  shall  be  required  of  the  person  contracting 
the  obligation. 

Art.  60.  For  the  annulment  and  perforation  of  the  titles 
which  shall  be  carried  out  in  conformity  with  the  foregoing 
articles,  the  proceedings  prescribed  in  Article  26  of  Law  56 
of  the  current  year  shall  be  followed. 

Art.  61 .  Decree  No.  832  of  1884,  and  circular  No.  94  of  the 
15th  October,  1884,  are  hereby  amended,  in  so  far  as  they 
conflict  with  the  present  decree,  as  well  as  all  other  similarly 
conflicting  provisions. 

Given    in    Fusagasuga,    on    the    19th    September,    1905. 

Let  it  be  published  and  enforced. 

R.  Reyes. 
The  Secretary  of  Public  Works, 

Modesto  Garces. 


APPENDIX  F  207 

Work  and  Wages 

Although  the  population  of  Colombia  is  undoubtedly  very 
scanty  in  proportion  to  the  area  of  the  country,  there  are 
certain  portions  of  the  interior  of  the  Republic  where  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  per  square  kilometre  is  almost  comparable 
to  that  of  Belgium  or  Holland.  There  are  therefore  regions 
practically  uninhabited  and  uncultivated,  and  other  regions 
in  which  the  population  sometimes  surpasses  the  productive 
powers  of  the  soil.  Hence,  where  the  population  is  numerous, 
employers  find  all  the  hands  they  require  and  wages  are  low. 
This  is  the  case  in  the  temperate  and  healthy  districts,  such  as 
the  famous  Valley  of  Tensa,  the  Valley  of  Pereira,  and  in  high 
and  fertile  districts,  like  the  Plain  of  Bogota,  and  in  the  Valley 
of  the  Rio  Negro  in  Antioquia.  In  these  districts  the  wages 
of  the  ordinary  workman  do  not  exceed  35  to40centavos  (gold). 
In  the  departments  of  Boyaca  and  Cundinamarca,  with  their 
great  haciendas,  with  their  system  of  co-operative  subtenancies 
(somewhat  on  the  metayer  system),  the  workman  receives  a 
wage  apparently  smaller,  because  the  balance  is  given  in 
the  form  of  his  board  and  reduced  rent  for  his  holding. 
Elsewhere  the  workman  contracts  to  work  for  the  proprietor 
of  the  estate  on  certain  days  in  the  year  at  a  low  wage,  in 
consideration  of  the  part  of  the  estate  which  he  occupies 
and  exploits  on  his  own  account. 

In  tropical  and  therefore  less  populous  districts,  where  the 
agricultural  and  pastoral  industries  require  more  labour,  the 
unskilled  workman  receives  higher  pay,  especially  if  this 
district  is  unhealthy.  Here  the  rate  rises  to  50  or  60  centavos. 
In  the  Antioquia  mines  the  rates  are  still  higher,  the  minimum 
being  1  peso  (gold)  per  day.  Wages  are  smaller  in  remote 
country  districts  than  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  large 
towns,  and  smaller  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  towns  than  in 
the  towns  themselves.  An  unskilled  workman  earns  in  Bogota 
60-70  centavos  for  labour  which  in  the  country  is  worth  less. 
On  the  railways  the  navvy  earns  70-80  centavos  in  tropical, 
and  50-60  centavos  in  colder  districts. 

Generally  speaking  the  supply  of  labour  exceeds  the  demand 
in  Colombia.  Within  the  same  territory  there  are  migrations 
from  district  to  district  in  search  of  work.  There  is  from 
Antioquia  a  constant  stream  of  emigration  to  Cauca,  Tolima, 


208  COLOMBIA 

and  Cundinamarca.  Through  Valley  of  Tensa  in  Boyaca, 
large  bodies  regularly  emigrate  to  populate  less  favoured 
districts. 

This  excess  of  supply  over  demand,  coupled  with  the  fact 
of  large  tracts  of  uncultivated  land,  accounts  for  the  lack  of 
European  emigration  to  Colombia.  The  European  peasant 
is  on  the  whole  better  paid  than  the  Colombian  ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  his  standard  of  living  is  higher.  As  a  result, 
European  emigration  will  not  spontaneously  flow  towards 
Colombia  ;  the  European  workman  cannot  compete  in  point 
of  wages  with  the  Colombian. 

Therefore  to  promote  emigration  to  Colombia,  the  Govern- 
ment must  pass  special  laws  to  counterbalance  or  abolish 
the  present  conditions.  Failing  this,  private  enterprise  with 
the  object  of  increasing  the  value  of  the  land,  will  at  no  very 
remote  period,  deal  with  the  diversion  towards  Colombia  of 
European  emigration.  This  will  be  a  harder  task  than  may 
appear,  since  the  European  workman  has  of  late  years  shown 
less  disposition  to  emigrate  to  N.  and  S.  America  than  was 
formerly  the  case. 


APPENDIX   G 

Conventions  and  Treaties 

Between  United  States  of  America  and  Colombia 

Amity,  Commerce  and  Navigation. — Made  with  New 
Granada  in  1846  ;  revised  by  Colombia  and  the  United  States 
in  1909.  One  of  the  articles  of  this  Convention  provides  for 
the  neutrality  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

Consular  Convention,  4  May,  1850.     Y 

Extradition,  7  May,  1888  ;  Amended  1889,  1890  ;  Proclaimed 
6  Feb.,  1891. 

Postal  and  Telegraph  Convention,  18  Jan.,  1889. 

Panama  Ship  Canal,  22  Jan.,  1903,  and  9  Jan.,  1909.  The 
treaty  provided  for :  The  renunciation  by  Colombia  of  rights 
and  contracts  relating  to  construction  ;  Grant  of  use  of  ports 
to  U.S.  ;  Assignment  by  Republic  of  Panama  to  Colombia  of 
the  right  to  receive  payment  from  the  United  States  ;  Freedom 
of  passage  for  Colombian  mails  ;  Colombian  products  to  enter 
Canal  Zone  at  same  duty  as  those  of  the  United  States  ; 
Payment  of  tenth  annual  instalments  to  Colombia  of 
$250,000  as  from  1908. 

The  1909  Treaty  (between  the  United  States,  Colombia  and 
Panama)  did  not  become  operative  owing  to  the  refusal  of 
Colombia  to  accept  some  of  the  conditions. 

Between  Colombia  and  the  United  Kingdom 

Amity,  Commerce  and  Navigation,  16  Feb.,  1866.  This 
treaty  contains  clauses  dealing  with  the  Consular  service. 

Law,  Foreigners  and  Nationalization,  15  Nov.,  1888. 

Postal  and  Telegraph  Convention,  1881,  1885,  1891  and 
15  June,  1897. 

Parcel  Post,  1887,  and  15  Sept.,  1899. 

Extradition,  27  Oct.,  1888. 

Convention  on  Industrial  Property. 

Arbitration,  30  Dec.,  1908. 


209 


INDEX 


Abejorral,  148 
Acardi,  148 
Agates,  114 
Agency,  70 

Aguas  claras  and  aguas  negros,  7 
Agriculture,    102-111.        See   also 
Gazetteer,   passim. 

,  Sugar-cane,   102-3 

,  Tobacco,  103-4 

,  Cocoa,   104 

,  Plantains,   104 

,  Bananas,   105 

,  Coco-nut,  106 

,  Rice,  106 

,  Cotton,  106 

,  Coffee,   107 

,  Cereals,   108 

,  Imports,   138 

Aguadas,  148 
Aguardiente,  103 
Aipe,  148 
Alcohol,    131 

See  also  Beverages. 
Alcaldes,  46,  48 
Algarroba,  98 
Almaguer,    148 
Alum,   113 
Amaga,   148 
Amain,  148,  120 
Ambalema  (prov.),  42 

(town),  75,  84 

Amaime,  148 
Amber,   114 
American  Agave 

See  Maguey,  Henequen. 
Amethysts,  114,  179 
Ammunition,   140 
Anapoima,   148 
Andes  (town),  149,  121 
Angostura,   149 
Animals,  Live  (imports),  140 

,   (exports),    141 

Animal  products    (exports),    141, 

143 


Anolaima,  149 

Anori,   121 

Anserma,  149 

Antimony,    113 

Antioquia  (department),  24-27 

,  Mining,   115-6 

(town),  149 

Apia,   149 
Aranzazu,   149 
Arauca   (comisaria),  44 

(town),   149 

Arbelaez,  149 
Arbobedas,   149 
Arjona,   149 
Armenia,  150 
Army,  46-7 
Arraco,  98 
Arsenic,  113 

Art  Materials  (imports),  138 

Aspacia,   150 

Asphalt,     114,      117,      118,      119, 

161 
Atlantico   (department),   27-8 

,  Mining,    116 

Atrato  River,  80,  93 
Avebury-Holguin  Agreement,  54 

Balata,  98,  100 
Balsams,  97 
Bananas,  26,  105-6 

,  Export  figures   (1912),   142 

See  also  Gazetteer. 
Banco  (prov.),  38 

(town),   150 

Central,  52,  56 

Nacional,  51 

Banking,  56-58 
Bankruptcy,  69 
Baranoa,  150 
Barbacoas  (prov.),  40 

(town),   150 

Barbosa,   150 
Barichara,   150 
Barley.     See  Cereals. 


211 


212 


INDEX 


Barranquilla   (prov.),  28 

(town),  90-1,   150 

,  Social  life,  62 

Baudo,  150 

Beans,  26,  108 

Belalcazar,  16 

Belen,   151 

Beltran,    151 

Beverages  (imports),  138 

Birds,  12 

Biterima,   151 

Boa  vita,   151 

Bochalema,  151 

Bochica   (mythical),   14 

Bogota  (prov.),  35 

(town),   151 

,  Climate,  6.-7 

,  Public  Institutions,  64 

,  Railways,   84-5 

,  Social  Life,  59-61 

Bolivar,  Simon,  19 

(department),  28-9 

, .Mining,    116 

(town),  152 

Boots  and  shoes,  126-7 
Boyaca  (department),  29-31 
,  Mining,    116 

(town),   152 

Battle  of,  19 

Brewing,  131 
Brokers,  69 
Bucaramanga   (prov.),  41 

(town),  83,  85,  86,  114,  153 

Budget,  47-8 
Buenaventura  (prov.),  37 

(town),  83,  93-4,  153 

Buga  (prov.),  36 

(town),    153 

Buttons,   130 

Cacao.     See  Cocoa. 
Caceres,   153,   121 
Calamar,  153,  82 
Calarca,    153 

Caldas   (department),  31-2 
,  Mining,  117 

(prov.),   33 

(town),  83,  154 

Cali  (prov.),  36 

(town),  95,  154 

Caloto,  154 


Camilo  Torres  (prov.),  33 

Campo  de  la  Cruz  (prov.),  28 

Campoalegre,  1 54 

Candelaria,   154 

Candles,    106 

Caparrapi,  154 

Cap  ilia  de  Cocuy,  154 

Capybary,  11 

Caqueta  (Comisaria),  44 

Caqueza,   155 

Carabobo,  Battle  of,  19 

Caramanta,   121,   155 

Carmen  (prov.),  29 

(El),  155 

de  Carupa,  155 

Cornelians,   114 
Carriages  (imports),   137 
Cartagena  (prov.),  29 

,  62-3,  91-2,    155-6 

Cartago   (prov.),   36 
,  156-7 

Cattle,   108-111 

See  also  Gazetteer. 
Cauca  (department),  32 

,  Mining,   117 

,  River,  76,  80,  186 

Caucho.     See  Rubber,  Balata. 
Cayambe,  2 
Celluloid,  139 
Cement,  130-1 
Centro   (prov.),  31 
Ceramics  (imports),   138 
Cereals,  107 

See  also  Gazetteer. 
Cerete,   157 
Cerrito,   157 
Cesar,  River,  76 
Champans,  75 
Charala  (prov.),  41 

(town),   157 

Chia,   157 

Chibchas,  The,  14,  30 

Chicha,  103 

Chiles,  2 

Chimininguagua,   14 
Chinacota,   1 57 
Chinu  (prov.),  29 

(town),   157 

Chipague,   157 
Chiquinquira,   157 
Chiriguana,  157 


INDEX 


213 


Chiscas,  157 
Chita,  158 
Choachi,   1 58 
Chocolate  factories,   131 
Choco  (Intendencia),  42-3 

,  Mining,  120 

Choconta  (prov.),  35 

(town),  158 

Cienaga,    1 58 
Cienaga  de  dro,  158 
Cinchona,  51,  99,   100-1 
Circasia,    158 

Coal,   113-4,   116,   117-9 

See  also  Gazetteer,  148,  154,  160, 
162,  168, 169, 172,  174, 181,  182 
Cocoa,  26,  104 

See  also  Gazetteer. 
Coconucos,  3 

Coco-nut,  97,   100,  106,   132 
Cocuy,   158 
Codes,  48-9 
Coello,  158 
Coffee,  107 

,  Export  figures   (1912),   142 

production   (1911),   26 

See  also  Gazetteer,  149,  159 
Coins.     See  Currency. 
Colegio.     See  El  Colegio. 
Colombia,  First    republic,    19 

,  Second    republic,    20 

,  Third  republic,  21 

,  Administrative    divisions, 

23-44 

,  Area,  1,  23 

,  Boundaries,   1 

,  Climate  and  Health,   5-8 

,  Discovery    and    Conquest, 

14-17 

,  Early  civilisation,   13-14 

,  Fauna,   11-12 

,  Flora,  9-11 

,  Geography    and      physical 

features,  1-4 

History,  13-22 

,  Mountains,  2-3 

,  Population,   1,  24 

,  Presidents,  22 

,  Rivers,  2-4 

,  Seasons,  6 

,  Spanish  rule,  17-18 

,  War  of  Independence,  18-19 

15— (2248) 


Colours  (imports),   139 
Comisarias,  Government,  46 

,  Names  and  description,  43-4 

Commerce,  Methods  of,   132-4 
Commercial  Courts,  48-9 

Laws,  67-73 

Travellers,    133-4 

Treaties,  208-9 

Conception,    159 
Concessions,  First,  99,  100 
,  Land,  110 

,  Manufacturing,    126 

,  Mining,   122 

Condiments.     See  Food-stuffs. 

Confederation  Granadina,  20 

Congress,  47-8 

Constitution,  45-9 

Consular  Invoices,    133 

Consuls,  Colombia — United  King- 
dom, 192 

,  Colombia — United  States, 

192 

Contracts,  69-70 

Convention,   159 

Copaiba,  97 

Copper,  113,  116,  148,  162,  167 

Cordilleras,  2 

Corozal  (prov.),  29 

(town),    159 

"  Corozo,"    167 
Cost  of  Living,  61 

Cotton    Mills.     See    Textiles   and 

Gazetteer,  150 
Credit,  Trade,   135 
Cucuta  (prov.),  40 

(town),   159,  85-6 

Cucutilla,    159 
Cumbal  (town),  159 

(Mt.),  2 

Cundinamarca   (department),   34- 

36 

,  ,  Mining,   117-8 

Currencies,       South       American, 

General  Table,   186-7 
Currency,  50-53,  56 

,  Colombian,    187 

Currucai,  98 

Dagua,  160 

Debt.     See  Finance 

Defence,  46-7 


214 


INDEX 


Departmental     Assemblies,  45-6, 

74,  48 
Departments,  23-44 
Diplomatic  Services,  Colombia — 

United  Kingdom,  192 

— Colombia — United  States, 

192 
Disease,  7 
Distilling,  131 
Donkeys,  109 
Drugs  (imports),  137 
Duitama,  160 

Education,  46,  64-5 
El  Buey  (Mt.),  3 

—  Colegio,  160 

—  Penon,  160 

—  Quindio  (Mt.),  3 

—  VaUe  (dep.),  36-7 

,  Mining,    118 

Electrical    Appliances    (imports), 

139 
Emeralds,  115-7,  152 
Emery,   113,   118,   179 
Esparto  Matting,   160 
Estacion  Santander,  76 
Executive,  45-6 
Explosives,  140 
Exports,    135-147 

(1911),   141-2 

(1912),  142 

FacatativA  (prov.),  35 

(town),    160 

Federmann,   16 

Fibres,  98,  100,  106,  129,  155 
Finance,  50-58 

External  Debt,  50-54 

Internal  Debt,  54-5 

Revenue  and  Expenditure, 

55-6 
Fique,  145.     See  Maguey. 
Firavitoba,    160 

Firearms  and  Ammunition,  140 
Florencia,   160 

Flour  Mills,  131-2,  151-2,   156 
Fomeque,   160 
Food-stufifs  (imports),  137 
Foreign  traders,  132-3 
Foreigners,  Position  of,  63 


Forests     and     Forest     Products, 

97-101 
Foundries,    148,    154,    166,    174, 

179,  180 
Frailejons,  10-11 
France,     Exports    and    Imports, 

136-147 
Fredonia,  160 
Frontino,  161 
Fuel,  99 

,  (imports),  138 

Fusagasuga,   161 

Gachala,   161 
Gacheta,   161 
Galena,   112 
Garagoa,  161 
Garnets,    114 
Garzon  (prov.),  37 

(town),   161 

Germany,  Exports   and   Imports, 

136-147 
Gigante,   161 
Girardot  (prov.),  35 
Girardot  (town),   161,  75,  84 
Girardota,  162 
Giron,   162 

Goajira  (comisaria),  43 
Goats,   109 
Gold,  112,  115-120.    See  Gazetteer. 

,  Export  figures,  26,    124-5 

,  (1912),   142 

Governors,  45 

Granadina.        See     Confederacidn 

Granadina. 
Ground  Nuts,  26,  108,  132 
Guaca,  162 
Guacheta,   162 
Guadas  (prov.),  42 
Guaduas  (prov.),  35 

(town),    162 

Guai  barilla,  162 
Guamo  (prov.),  42 
Guapi,  94 

"  Guara,"  130 
Guarapo,   103 
Guasca,   162 
Guatavita  (prov.),  35 

(town),    162 

Guateque,   162 
Guaviare,  River,  81 


INDEX 


215 


Guavio  (prov.)»  35 
Guayacan,  97 
Guayata,   163 
Gucari,   162 
Gutierez  (prov.),  31 
Gutta  percha.     See  Balata. 

Harbours,  90-96 

Hato,  163 

Henequen  fibre,  98,  107,  129,  155 

Heredia,  76 

Hides  and  skins  (imports),  139 

(exports),   141 

Honda   (prov.),  42 

(town),  163,  75,  84 

Horses,   109 

House  of  Representatives,  47-8 
Huila  (department),  57 

,  Mining,    118 

Huaila  (Mt.),  3 

Ibagu£    (prov.),   42 

(town),   163 

Imports  and  Exports,   135-147 

(1911),  136-141,  143-147 

,  Textiles,  137,  143-5 

,  Wearing  apparel,  144-5 

,  Sacks,  145 

,  Machinery,    145 

,  Electrical  goods,    145-6 

,  Carriages,  146 

,  Leather,  146-7 

Import  Duties,  48 
Indian  tombs,   151 
Inks  (imports),  139 
Inland     Communication,     74-89, 
120-122 

Navigable  Rivers,  74-81 

Railways,  81-87 

Roads,  87-89 

See  also  Travelling. 
Inscriptions.  Rock,  148,  169 
Intendencies,  Government,  46,  47 

,  Names  and  description,  424 

Ipiales,  163 
Iron,   113,   116-9 

See  also  Foundries. 
Ismande,  163 
Istmina,   163 
Ituango,  164 


Jamundi,   164 
Jasper,  114,  117 
Jenesano,   164 
Jerico,   164 
Jesuits,   18 
Jesus  del  Rio,  76 

Maria,   164 

Jewellery,   167 
Joint-adventurers,   72 
Joint  Stock  Companies,  70-1 
Juanambu  (prov.),  39 
Judicature,  48-9 

Junin,   164 

Junta  de  Amortizaci6n,  52 

Conversion,  53 

Jurado  (comisaria),  43,  44 

Labour,  207-8 

La  Cruz  (prov.),  40 

(town),   164 

Dorada,  75,  84 

Mesa,   164 

Palma,    165 

Plata   (prov.),  37 

(town),    165 

Quiebra,  76 

Union,  165 

Vega,  165 

Land,  Colonisation,  110 

,  Denouncement    and   Allot- 
ment of  Public,   193-7 
Las  Papas,  2,  3 
Law.     See  Litigation. 
Lead,  113,  117,  119 
See  also  Gazetteer. 
Leather,   130 
Lebrija,   River,  76 
Legislature,  47-8 
Libano   (prov.),  42 
Lighting  (imports),  138 
Limestone,   149,   150,   176 
Literature,  65-6 
Litigation,  67-8 
Llanos,  4 
Lorica,  165 

MAGANGUfe  (prov.),  29 

(town),  165,  76 

Magdalena    (department),   37-8 
,  Mining,  118 

,  River,  74-80 


216 


INDEX 


Magdalena,  Canalisation  of,  77-8 

,  Steamship   service,    186 

Maguey,  10,  98,  107,  129 

Maize,  26 

P    See  also  Cereals. 

Majagual,  165 

Malaga  (prov.),  41 

(town),    165 

Manganese,  113 
Manioc,  107 
Manizales  (prov.),  32 

(town),   165,  121 

Manto,  97 

Manufactures  and  industries,  126- 

134 
,  Government  protection,  126 

(exports),    124 

See  also  Gazetteer. 

Manzanares,   166 
Marble,   158 
Marmato,  166,  121 
Marquez  (prov.),  31 
Marulanda  (prov.),  32 
Matanza,   166 
Measures,   189 
Medellin,  166,  76,  83 
Medicines.     See  Drugs. 
Mercury,   113,    116 
Mesa.     See  La  Mesa. 
Meta   (Intendencia),  43-4 

,  River,  81 

, ,  Steamship  service,  186 

Metals  (imports),  137 
Mineral  waters,   131 
Mines,  Mining,  and  Minerals,  26, 
112-125 

,  Laws,    122-124 

,  Timbers  used  in,   122 

,  Schools,  65 

,  Exports  (1911),   142 

,  Imports,  138 

See  also  Gazetteer. 
Ministers,  45 
Mint,  The,  53 
Miraflores,    167 
Mocua,  167 
Mogotes,  167 
Molagavita,  167 
Mompos  (prov.),  29 

(town),    167 

Moniquira,   167 


Mosquera,  Tomas  Cipriano,  20 

Monteria,   167 

Motor  vehicles,   146 

Muiscas,  The,  14 

Mules,   109 

Mule  packs,  88-9 

Municipal  Councils,  46,  47 

Courts,   48 

Musical  Instruments  (imports),  140 

Narino  (department),  38-40 

, ,  Mining,   118-9 

National  Assembly,  47 
Navy,  47 
Nazareth,   168 
Nechi,  River,  121 
Neira  (prov.),  31 

(town),    168 

Neiva  (prov.),  57 

(town),  168,  75 

Nemocon,  168 

New  Granada,  Spanish  Provinces 
and  administration,  18 

,  Republic  of,  20 

Newspapers,  66-7 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  113 

Nitre,  113 

Norte  (prov.),  31 

• de  Santander    (department), 

40 

,  ,  Mining,  119 

Novita,   168 

Nunchia  (prov.),  31 

(town),    168 

Nunez  (prov.),  40 
,  Rafael,  21 

Oban  do  (prov.),  39 
Ocafia  (prov.),  40 

(town),    168 

Occident  e  (prov.),  31 
Oils  (imports),  139 
Onyx,   114 
Orchids,  10 

Oriente  (prov.),  31,  35 
Orocue  (prov.),  44 

Pacho,  168 
Packing,  134,  88-9 
Pacora,   169 
Padilla  (prov.),  38 


INDEX 


217 


Padua,  169 

Paipa,  169 

Palma.     See  La  Palma. 

Palmira  (prov.),  36 

(town),    169 

Pamplona  (prov.),  40 

(town),   169 

Panama,  Province,  18 

,  Department,   20-21 

,  State,  20 

,  Canal,  xi,  xii,  209 

,  Revolt  and  independence,  2 1 

,  Colombian     Exports     and 

Imports,  136-147 

,   (town)  Foundation,  15 

"Panama"  Hats,  129,  148,  176, 

178,  179,  183 

,  (Exports)   (1912).  142 

Pandi,  169 
Panela,   103 
Paper  (imports),  138 
Partnerships,  70-72 
Pasto  (prov.),  39 

(town),   169 

varnish,  98 

Patents,  72 
Patia,  River,  80-1 

,  Steamship  service,  186 

Penon.     See  El  Penon. 
Pensilvania,   170 
Pereira  (prov.),  32 

(town),   170 

Perfumery    (imports),    139 
Pesca,   170 

Petroleum,  114,   116,  119 

,  Government  rights  in,  124 

.  Refining,   156,   167 

Piedecuesta  (prov.),  41 

(town),    170 

Pitalito,    170 
Plantains,  26,  104-5 

See  also  Gazetteer. 
Plata.     See  La  Plata. 
Platinum,  112,  117,  120,  164 

,  Export   figures,     125 ;     see 

also  26 

,  (1912),   142 

Popayan  (prov.),  33 

(town),    170 

Porce,  River,  121 
Ports.     See  Harbours. 


Posts  and  Telegraphs,  46,  189-191 
Potatoes,  108 
Precious  stones,  114-5 
Prefects,  46 
Presidents,  List  of,  22 

Powers,  45-47 

Designado,  48 

Press,  The.     See  Newspapers. 
Providencia,  29 
Puebloviejo,  171 
Puente  Nacional,  171 
Puerto  Berrio,  171,  76,  83 
Cesar,  106 

Colombia,  90,  171 

Santos,  76 

Wilches,   171,  76,  83 

Pulque,  98 

Pupiales,  171 
Purace  (Mt.),  3 
Putumayo  (Comisaria),  44 
,  River,  81 

Quesada,  Gonzalo,   16 
Quibdo,  171 
Cjuimbayas,  The,  14 
Quipile,  172 

Railways,  81-87 

,  Antioquia,  83 

,  Barranquilla,  82 

,  Cartagena,  82 

,  Cauca,  83 

,  Colombian   National,    84 

,  Cucuta,  85 

,  Great  Central  Northern.  83 

,  La  Dorada,  84 

,  Northern,   84 

,  Sabana,  84 

,  Santa  Marta,  82 

,  Southern,  85 

,  Projected  lines,  85-87 

Railway  Stock  (imports),  137 

Ramiriqui,   172 

Registration  of  Letters,  etc..  190 

Remedios,   172,   120 

Resins,  98.  151 

Reyes.  Rafael,  21 

Ricaurte  (prov.).  31 

(town).   172 

Rice,  26,  106 
Rio  de  Oro,  172 


218 


INDEX 


Riohacha,  172,  92 
Rionegro,  172,  173 
Riosucio  (prov.),  32 

(town),  121,  173 

Rivers,   Navigable,   74-81 

See  also  under  Steamship  Lines. 
Roads,  25-6,  27,  28,  30,  39,  40, 

87-89 
Rock  crystal,  114,   117,  118,   179 

Salt,   113,   183 

Roldanillo   (prov.),  36 

(town),   173 

Rosario  (El),   173 

"  Ruanas  "  (woollen  fabric),  162 
Rubies,  114 

Rubber,  97-8,  100,  153,  167,  171, 
182 

,  Export  figures  (1912),  142 

,  Imports,    140 

See  also  Gazetteer. 
Ruiz  (Mt.),  3 

Sabanalarga,   173 
Saboya,  173 
Sahagun,   173 
Salazar,  174 
Salamina   (prov.),  32 

(town),    173 

Salt,  113,  117-8,  148,  149 

Samaca,    174 

Samaniego,  174 

Samples,   Commercial,    133-4 

,  Postal  regulations,   190-1 

Sampues,  174 

San  Agustin,  174 

San  Andres  de  Providencia,  29 

Andres  (prov.),  41 

(town),    174 

de    Sotavento,     174 

Antonio,   174 

Francisco,   174,   175 

Gil  (prov.),  41 

(town),    175 

Jose,   175 

Juan..  175 

—  de  Cesar,  175 
-,  River,  80.  93 
-,  Steamship  service,  186 

Luis,   175 

Martin   (prov.),  44 

Onofre,   175 


San    Pablo.     See  Istmina. 

Roque,   120 

Vicente,  176-7 

Santa  Ana,  175 

Barbara,   176 

Isabel,  3 

Marta  (prov.),  38 

(town),    176,   63,   92-3 

Railway,  82 

Rosa,    120 

Rosa  de  Cabal,   176 

Osos,    176 

Santander,  Francisco  de  Paula,  19 

(department),  40-41 

,  ,  Mining,    119 

(prov.),  33 

(town),   175 

,  See     also     Estaci&n     Sant- 
ander. 
Santo  Domingo,  120,  176 
Santuario,    176 
Santurban,  Paramo  of,  3 
Sapphires,  114 
Saragoza.     See  Zaragoza. 
Sasaima,  177 

Savanilla.     See  Puerto  Colombia 
Segovia,  120,  177 
Senate,  47-8 
Sesquile,   177 
Sheep,  109 

Silver,  112,  115-119,  148 
Silvia  (prov.),  33 

(town),    177 

Since,  177 
Sincelejo  (prov.),  29 

(town),    177 

Sinu  (prov.),  29 

,  River,  80 

Soacha,  177 
Soap,  106,  108 

(imports),   139 

Soata,   177 

Social  Conditions,  59-73 
Socorro  (prov.),  41 

(town),    177 

Socota,   178 
Sogamoso,  30,  178 
Soledad,   178 
Sonson,  121,  178 
Sopetran,   178 
Sotaquira,  178 


INDEX 


219 


Spain,     Exports     and      Imports, 

136-147 
Steamship  Lines,  Ocean,   185-6 

,  River,    186 

Stocking  net  mill,  128 
Storax,  151 
Suaita,   179 
Subachoque,  179 
Sugamuxi  (prov.),  31 
Sugar-cane,   102-3,  261 

See  also  Gazetteer. 
Sugar  refining,  131,   150,   152 
Sulphur,  113,  161,  166,  183 
Sumapaz  (prov.),  36 
Superior  Courts,  48 
Supia,  121,   179 
Supreme  Court,  47-8 
Sur  (prov.),  38 

Tagua,      97,       100.      See      also 
Gazetteer. 

,  Export   figures  (1912),  142 

Talc,  118-9 
Tambo,  179 

Tanning,  130,  152,  156.  163,  166 

Tapir,  11 

Telephones,  191-2 

Tena,   179 

Tequendama   (prov.),  36 

Falls,  34 

Textiles,    127-129 
,  Imports,   143-5 

,  Factories,    151-2,    156,    159 

162,164,165,166,170,171 
Thermal   Springs,    148,    158,    159, 

160,    161,    162,  163,   166,    172, 

180,  181,  182 
Tibana,  179 
Timana,  179 
Timbio,   179 
Timber  trade,  101 
,  Export  figures   (1912),    142 

(imports),  139 

Timbiqui,   180 
Tin,  112,  113 
Tisquesusha,  14 
Titiribi,  180,  121 
Tobacco,   103-4 

,  Export  figures  (1912),    142 

,  Manufacture,   130 


Tobacco,  Produce   (1911),   26 

See  also  Gazetteer,  155 
Tocaima,  180 
Tolima  (department),  41-2 
,  Mining,    119-120 

(Mt.),  3 

Tolu,   180 

,  Balsam  of,   97 

Tortoise-shell  and  Horn,   140 

Tota,   180 

Trade    Materials     (imports),     138 

Trade  or  Commercial  Marks,  72-3 

Transit  Duties,  48 

Transport.     See      Inland     Com- 
munication. 

Travelling,   61-63 

See  also  Inland  Communication. 

Trees.  See  Forests  ;  Timber  Trade. 

Tulua  (prov.),  36 

(town),    180 

Tumaco,  94,  180 
Tundama  (prov.),  31 
Tunja,  30,  180 
Tuquerres,    181 
Turbaco,   181 

Ubala,  181 
Ubaque,  181 
Ubate  (prov.),  36 

(town),   181 

Une,  181 

Union.     See  La  Union. 
United     Kingdom,     Commercial 
Treaties,  209 

— ,  Exports  and  Imports, 

136-147 
See    also    Consuls ;    Diplomatic 
Representatives. 
United         States,         Commercial 
Treaties,  208-9 

,  Exports  and  Imports, 

136-147 
See    also    Consuls ;    Diplomatic 
Representatives. 
Universities,  64-5 
Uraba  (Comisaria),  44 
Urras,   182 

Valderama  (prov.),  31 
Vailed upar  (prov.),  38 

(town),   182 


220 


INDEX 


Valparaiso,  121 
Varnishes  (imports),  139 
Vasquez  (territory),  31 
Vaupes  (comisaria),  44 
Vega.     See  La  Vega. 
Vegetable  ivory.     See  Tagua. 
Vegetable  products,  141,  143 

(exports) 

Velez  (prov.),  41 

(town),    182 

Vergera,   182 
ViUavicencio  (prov.),  44 

(town),    182 

Villeta,  182 
Viota,  182 


Wages,  207 
Wax  palm,  97,  98 
Weights  and  Measures,  189 


Wheat.     See  Cereals. 
Woollen  Mills.     See  Textiles. 

Yacopi,  182 
Yapura,  River,  81 
Yarumal,   120,   182 
Yolombo,   120,   183 
Yucca,  26.     See  also  Manioc. 

Zambrano,  76 
Zapotoca  (prov.),  41 

(town),  183 

Zaragoza,  183 
Zea,  121 

Zinc,  113 

Zipaquira  (prov.),  36 

(town),   183 

Zirconium,  114 

Zulia,  River,  Steamships,     186 


0 


Press  of   Isaac  Pitman  &  Sons,  Bath,  England. 
(2248) 


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